One advantage of using Web of Science and Scopus for locating previous research is that they

Why is it important for anyone in our society to have knowledge of research methods?

-ability to evaluate reports (from media claims to research)

-important in public policy

-important in developing and assessing programs designed to achieve certain goals

-to satisfy our native curiosity

Why is scientific skepticism useful in furthering our knowledge of behavior?

Allows for continued progress by narrowing the amount of information to research that is empirical

How does the scientific approach differ from other ways of gaining knowledge about behavior?

The fundamental characteristic is empiricism, with knowledge being based on observations and data.

Provide (a) definitions and (b) examples of description, prediction, determination of cause, and explanation as goals of scientific research.

1. describe. direct observation.

2. prediction. allows anticipating events

3. causes behavior. to explain why or how its cause

Describe the three elements for inferring causation. Describe the characteristics of scientific inquiry, according to Goodstein (2000).

-Data, which plays a central role

-Scientists are not alone

-Scientific evidence is peer-reviewed

-Science is adversarial (battle of ideas)

How does basic research differ from applied research?

Applied research is primarily defined by its focus on providing a practical solution to a defined problem while basic research is primarily defined by its focus on expanding knowledge. In other words, basic research is theory-oriented, applied research is practical-oriented.

A testable prediction about the relationship between at least two events, characteristics, or variables.

What is the distinction between a hypothesis and a prediction?

The difference between Hypothesis and Prediction is that hypothesis is scientific and is based on evidence and facts. In contrast, a prediction is usually made for a future event and is a pure guess. A hypothesis can be made for a past event or a future event.

What are the two functions of a theory?

Myers Briggs's theory is based on four psychological functions – Sensing, iNtuition, Thinking, and Feeling. They are used to perceive facts or possibilities and make decisions using objective logic or subjective values.

Distinguish between literature reviews, theory articles, and empirical research articles.

a literature review summarizes previous research in an area.

theory articles generally summarize and integrate research to provide a new framework for understanding

empirical research articles are a report of a study in which data is gathered to help answer a research question

Describe the differences in the ways past research is found when you use PsycINFO versus the “key article” method of the Web of Science or Scopus.

PsycINFO - uses standard psychological terms and the results are presented with the title, author, publication title, and the abstract

SCI/SSCI - use an older article, the "key article," on your topic and then search for subsequent articles that cited the older "key article"

What information does the researcher communicate in each of the sections of a research article?

Abstract: Summary of the research report

Method: Describes the study's design

Results: Findings presented by the researcher

Discussion: Reviews the research from various perspectives.

References: List of all the works cited in APA format

Discuss the major ethical issues in behavioral research, including risks, benefits, deception, debriefing, informed consent, and justice.

In behavioral research, there are many ethical issues that can occur. risks can include, psychological or

physical harm to participants as well as a potential loss of confidentiality. Benefits of such studies may

include education, development of new skills, or even treatment for medical or psychological issues.

Deception can occur in studies when information about the study is "misrepresented" purposefully

towards the participants. Deception can be found in different ways such as participants being deceived about the purpose of the study, or also what the participants are actually doing. Debriefing happens after

the study is complete, and is used by researchers to make sure they are following the rules of the APA

Ethics Code.

How can researchers weigh the need to conduct research against the need for ethical procedures?

if the benefits toward humanity greatly out weigh the risks without breaking and code of ethics

Why is informed consent an ethical principle?

giving participants enough information about the study so they are free to accept or decline the opportunity to participate based on the risks and benefits of participating is just, and ethical to the person rights

What are the potential problems with obtaining fully informed consent?

lack of autonomy, and providing too much information about the study could potentially invalidate the results of the study.

Know the Milgram study and why it’s important in regards to ethics.

In the 1960s, psychologist Stanley Milgram conducted a series of studies on the concepts of obedience and authority. His experiments involved instructing study participants to deliver increasingly high-voltage shocks to an actor in another room, who would scream and eventually go silent as the shocks became stronger. The shocks weren't real, but study participants were made to believe that they were.Today, the Milgram experiment is widely criticized on both ethical and scientific grounds. However, Milgram's conclusions about humanity's willingness to obey authority figures remain influential and well-known.

What alternatives to deception are described in the text?

role-playing, simulations, and honest experiments

Summarize the principles concerning research with human participants in the APA Ethics Code.

institutional approval of research is required, informed consent for the participant to on all parts of the experiment to participate. 5 principles include beneficence, responsibility, integrity, justice, and respect for the rights and dignity of others.

What is the difference between “no-risk” and “minimal-risk” research activities?

no risk are simple questions. minimal risk involve recording physical data might involve invasion of privacy, moderate exercise by healthy volunteers, and study of participants cognitive, game theory, and test involvement without manipulation and stress

What is an Institutional Review Board?

is an administrative body established to protect the rights and welfare of human research subjects recruited to participate in research activities conducted under the auspices of the institution with which it is affiliated.

What constitutes fraud, what are some reasons for its occurrence, and why does it not occur more frequently?

Fraud may occur when scientists feel a heavy burden to extract data with notable and remarkable results. Their careers are on the line, thus enforcing fear to do well. It has become a serious offense and will

destroy a psychologist's career

Describe how you would proceed to identify plagiarism in a writing assignment.

There are several warning signs that may be clues to plagiarized material in students’ writing. These include the use of inconsistent writing styles within one piece, the use of phrasing or concepts that are more sophisticated than you would expect (based on earlier assignments from that particular student), or unusual repetitions.

Is something that changes. A variable can be a behavior, thought, feeling, situation, characteristic, or event.

Define “operational definition” of a variable.

Is the set of procedures used when you measure or manipulate the variable.

Positive relationship. What is the relationship between the number of hours slept the previous night and an individual's positive mood?

low scores on one variable are associated with high scores on another variable/Negative. What is the relationship between an individual's level of boredom with a relationship and their marital satisfaction?

Both increase and decrease in the values of the other variable. What is the relationship between arousal level and task performance?

non-experimental research:

nonexperimental research is defined by exclusion: research that is not experimental. The distinction between experimental research and nonexperimental research is based on the degree of control that the researcher has over the subjects and the conditions of the research.

nonexperimental research that asks questions regarding how people make meaning out of the world

nonexperimental research that measures two or more variables to determine the degree of relationship between them

independent variable & dependant variable

The experimental method reduces ambiguity, and thus uncertainty, in the interpretation of results. With the experimental method, one variable is manipulated and the other is then measured. The manipulated variable is called the independent variable and the variable that is measured is termed the dependent variable.

Is an extremely valuable way to study many problems. However, the high degree of control and the laboratory setting may sometimes create an artificial atmosphere that may limit the external validity of the results.

The independent variable is manipulated in a natural setting. As in any experiment, the researcher attempts to control extraneous variables via either randomization or experimental control.

What is meant by the problem of direction of cause and effect and the third-variable problem?

In descriptions of the relationship between two variables, a third variable is any other variable that is extraneous to the two variables of interest. True experiments control for the possible influence of third variables

How do direct experimental control and randomization influence the possible effects of extraneous variables?

Controlling for the effects of extraneous variables by ensuring that the variables operate in a manner determined entirely by chance

What are some reasons for using the nonexperimental method to study relationships between variables? Be ready to identify each if given an example.

Measures variables of interest as they naturally occur, without experimenter intervention or manipulation.

What is meant by the reliability of a measure? Distinguish between true score and measurement error.

Reliability = true score + measurement error

true score: the theorized "true value" for a given variable

measurement error: the amount the measurement deviates from the true value.

Describe the methods of determining the reliability of a measure.

refers to the consistency of a measure. Psychologists consider three types of consistency: over time (test-retest reliability), across items (internal consistency), and across different researchers (inter-rater reliability).

Be able to distinguish between reliability and validity.

Validity refers to the extent to which a test measures, and what it claims to measure. Reliability, on the other hand, refers to the consistency of the test results.

Discuss the concept of construct validity. Distinguish among the indicators of construct validity.

Construct validity is "the degree to which a test measures what it claims, or purports, to be measuring.". In the classical model of test validity, construct validity is one of three main types of validity evidence, alongside content validity and criterion validity.

Construct validity - Wikipedia

Distinguish among the indicators of construct validity.

Construct validity evaluates whether a measurement tool really represents the thing we are interested in measuring. It’s central to establishing the overall validity of a method.

Why isn’t face validity sufficient to establish the validity of a measure?

Because there is no basis on which to believe face validity, more than anything it is intuition.

Often, there are operational definitions that SEEM as though they should capture a construct, they do not.

Conversely, there are measures with no face validity, which, for other reasons, are valid. ex. REM and dreaming.

What is a reactive measure?

a measure with the action of altering the response under observation

Distinguish between nominal, ordinal, interval, and ratio scales.

nominal: no order

ordinal: order, no intervals

interval: intervals, no absolute zero

ratio: order, intervals, absolute zero

Psychology Definition of FACE VALIDITY: is a measure of the extent the items included within an experiment appear to be appropriate for what they are being used to measure irrespective of

Content validity is an important research methodology term that refers to how well a test measures the behavior for which it is intended. For example, let's say your teacher gives you a psychology test on the psychological principles of sleep.

In psychology, discriminant validity tests whether concepts or measurements that are not supposed to be related are actually unrelated. Campbell and Fiske (1959) introduced the concept of discriminant validity within their discussion on evaluating test validity.

data which is measured in categories

Cronbach's (alpha) is a statistic. It has an important use as a measure of the reliability of a psychometric instrument. It was first named as alpha by Cronbach (1951), as he had intended to continue with further instruments.

tries to answer fundamental questions about the nature of behavior.–Studies are often designed to address theoretical issues concerning phenomena such as cognition, emotion, motivation, learning, personality, development, and social behavior.

addresses issues in which there are practical problems and potential solutions. –One major area of applied research is called program evaluation, which assesses the social reforms and innovations that occur in government, education, the criminal justice system, industry, health care, and mental health institutions.

WHY ARE RESEARCH METHODS IMPORTANT?

Helpstodevelopandassesstheeffectiveness of programs designed to achieve certain goals.

DIFFERENTIATE BETWEEN SCIENCE VERSUS PSEUDOSCIENCE.

LookforUntestability; Imprecise, biased or vague language; Expert Credentials, Conflicting evidence is ignored; Lack of evidence.

WHAT ARE THE 4 GOALS OF SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH?

1. Describe Behavior –How are events related to each other?

2. Predict Behavior –When is the behavior likely to occur?

SUMMARIZE PREVIOUS RESEARCH ON A PARTICULAR TOPIC

ANALYZE THE RESULTS OF A NUMBER OF STUDIES USING STATISTICAL PROCEDURES

SOME PUBLISHED RESEARCH REPORTS ARE THE CULMINATION OF WORK THAT DESCRIBES A THEORY

EMPIRICAL RESEARCH ARTICLE

A REPORT OF A STUDY IN WHICH DATA WERE GATHERED TO HELP ANSWER A RESEARCH QUESTIONa)

THEY HAVE 5 SECTIONS