How did mass consumption in the progressive era result in new consumer freedoms?

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Abstract

U.S. food prices surged abruptly higher in 1910-1913, alarming urban consumers, who equated them with the high cost of living, but delighting farmers. Progressive reformers tackled detailed aspects of the food-price problem but had no overarching solution and no effective programs to please both consumers and farmers. A volatile pattern of economic voting resulted, but unlike conventional models, it had countervailing tendencies, setting consumers against food producers. Food prices cost the Republicans heavily in the 1910 election and helped disrupt the party by 1912, ending the Republican "system of 1896." In power, Democrats pursued primarily a southern-tinged agrarian agenda and narrowly preserved power through 1914 and 1916 but fell victim to interest-group conflicts in 1918 and economic disasters in 1920.

Journal Information

The Journal of the Gilded Age and Progressive Era is a peer-reviewed journal published quarterly by the Society for Historians of the Gilded Age and Progressive Era (SHGAPE) with support from the Rutherford B. Hayes Presidential Center. The Journal publishes original essays and reviews scholarly books on all aspects of U.S. history for the time period of 1865 through the 1920s. The Journal encourages submissions in every field of inquiry, including politics and government, social and cultural history, business, economic, and labor history, international relations, comparative and transnational history, issues of race, ethnicity, class, and gender, legal, intellectual, and religious history, science and medicine, technology, the arts, and material culture, rural and urban history, and regional history. Public historians and independent scholars as well as academic historians are invited to submit, as are social scientists working on historical issues and scholars in American Studies.

Publisher Information

Founded in 1987, the Society for Historians of the Gilded Age and Progressive Era exists to foster and advance the study and understanding of the history of the United States during the period 1865 to 1917. Membership is open to anyone interested in this topic, with reduced rates for student members. In addition to publishing the Journal of the Gilded Age and Progressive Era, the Society sponsors scholarly sessions and events at annual meetings of the Organization of American Historians and the American Historical Association, provides conference travel support, hosts a website that includes original field-related content, co-sponsors the listserv H-SHGAPE, and awards prizes for books, articles, and unpublished graduate student research in the field. Its luncheon during the Organization of American Historians meeting features a distinguished historian address and a presidential address in alternating years. A 501(c)(3) corporation, the Society may be reached through contacting the President or Executive Secretary as listed on the SHGAPE website.

StudySpace: Give Me Liberty! 2nd Edition

1 A New World2 Beginnings of English America, 1607�16603 Creating Anglo-America, 1660�17504 Slavery, Freedom, and the Struggle for Empire, to 17635 The American Revolution, 1763�17836 The Revolution Within7 Founding a Nation, 1783�17898 Securing the Republic, 1790�1815 9 The Market Revolution, 1800�184010 Democracy in America, 1815�184011 The Peculiar Institution12 An Age of Reform, 1820�184013 A House Divided, 1840�186114 A New Birth of Freedom: The Civil War, 1861�186515 �What Is Freedom?�: Reconstruction, 1865�187716 America�s Gilded Age, 1870�189017 Freedom�s Boundaries, at Home and Abroad, 1890�1900 18 The Progressive Era, 1900�191619 Safe for Democracy: The United States and World War I, 1916�192020 From Business Culture to Great Depression: The Twenties, 1920�193221 The New Deal, 1932�194022 Fighting for the Four Freedoms: World War II, 1941�194523 The United States and the Cold War, 1945�195324 An Affluent Society, 1953�196025 The Sixties, 1960�196826 The Triumph of Conservatism, 1969�198827 Globalization and Its Discontents, 1989�200028 September 11 and the Next American Century


  1. Introduction
    1. Progressive era
      1. Surge in production, consumption, urban growth
      2. Persistence of social problems
    2. Progressivism
      1. Broad-based elements
      2. Loosely-defined meanings
      3. Varied and contradictory character
    3. New notions of American freedom
  2. An urban age
    1. Early-twentieth-century economic explosion
      1. "Golden age" for agriculture
      2. Growth in number and size of cities
      3. Stark contrasts of opulence and poverty
    2. Popular attention to dynamism and ills of the city
      1. Painters and photographers
      2. Muckrakers
        1. Lewis Hine's photography
        2. Lincoln Steffens's The Shame of the Cities
        3. Ida Tarbell's History of the Standard Oil Company
      3. Novelists
        1. Theodore Dreiser's Sister Carrie
        2. Upton Sinclair's The Jungle
    3. Immigrants and immigration
      1. Height of "new immigration" from southern and eastern Europe
      2. Immigration from agrarian to industrial centers as a global process
        1. Volume and flows
        2. Causes
        3. Circumstances of immigrants
      3. Ellis Island
      4. Influx of Asian and Mexican immigrants in West
      5. Immigrant presence in industrial cities
      6. Aspirations of new immigrants
        1. Social and legal equality, freedom of conscience, economic opportunity, escape from poverty
        2. Means to acquire land back home
        3. Material prosperity as central to "freedom"
      7. Circumstances of new immigrants
        1. Close-knit "ethnic" neighborhoods
          1. Social institutions
          2. Preservation of native languages
          3. Churches
        2. Low pay, harsh working conditions
    4. The new mass-consumption society
      1. Outlets for consumer goods
        1. Department stores
        2. Neighborhood chain stores
        3. Retail mail order houses
      2. Expanding range and availability of consumer goods
      3. Leisure activities
        1. Amusement parks
        2. Dance halls
        3. Theaters; vaudeville
        4. Movies; "nickelodeons"
    5. Women in urban public life
      1. Employment
        1. Racial and ethnic stratification
        2. Working woman as symbol of female emancipation; Charlotte Perkins Gilman's Women and Economics
      2. Leisure, entertainment
    6. "Fordism"
      1. Background on Henry Ford, Ford Motor Company
      2. Production innovations
        1. Standardized output
        2. Lower prices
        3. Assembly line
      3. Strategies to attract and discipline labor
        1. Five-dollar day
        2. Anti-union espionage
      4. Linking of mass production and mass consumption
    7. Impact of mass-consumption ideal
      1. Recasting of "American way of life," "freedom"
      2. Challenges to material inequalities
        1. Labor unionism
        2. Critique of corporate monopoly
        3. Doctrine of "a living wage"; Father John A. Ryan
  3. Changing ideas of freedom
    1. Varieties of Progressivism
    2. Industrial labor and the meanings of freedom
      1. Frederick W. Taylor's "scientific management"
        1. Principles of
        2. Mixed response to
          1. Favorable: as way to enhance efficiency
          2. Unfavorable: as threat to worker independence
      2. New talk of "industrial freedom," "industrial democracy"
    3. Socialist party
      1. High watermark of American socialism
        1. Membership
        2. Elected officials
        3. Newspapers
        4. Eugene V. Debs
      2. Program
        1. Immediate reforms
        2. Public ownership of railroads and factories
        3. Democratic control of economy
      3. Breadth of following
        1. Urban immigrant communities
        2. Western farming and mining regions
        3. Native-born intelligentsia
      4. Rising presence of socialism throughout Atlantic world
    4. Labor movement
      1. American Federation of Labor
        1. Surge of growth
        2. Boundaries of membership
          1. Skilled industrial and craft laborers
          2. White, male, and native-born
        3. Moderate ideology; ties with business Progressives
          1. National Civic Federation
          2. Collective bargaining for "responsible" unions
          3. Alternative strain of rigid employer anti-unionism
      2. Industrial Workers of the World
        1. Inclusion of workers from all stations and backgrounds
        2. Trade union militancy
        3. Advocate of workers' revolution
        4. William "Big Bill" Haywood
        5. Support and guidance for mass, multiethnic strikes
      3. High points of broad-based labor struggle
        1. Lawrence "Bread and Roses" textile strike; march of strikers' children
        2. New Orleans dock workers strike
        3. Paterson silk workers strike; Paterson pageant
        4. Colorado Fuel and Iron miners strike; Ludlow Massacre
      4. Suppression of labor radicalism and emergence of "civil liberties" issue
    5. Shadings of feminism
      1. Appearance of term "feminism"
      2. "Lyrical Left"
        1. New cultural "bohemia"
        2. Radical reassessments of politics, the arts, sexuality
      3. Rise of personal freedom
        1. Freudian psychology
        2. Free sexual expression and choice
        3. Pockets of open gay culture
      4. Birth control movement
        1. Emma Goldman
        2. Margaret Sanger
  4. The Politics of Progressivism
    1. Global scope of Progressive impulse
      1. Common strains arising from industrial and urban growth
      2. International networks of social reformers
      3. Influence of European "social legislation" on American reformers
    2. Shared premises
      1. Commitment to activist government
      2. View of freedom as a positive concept
        1. "Effective freedom"; "power to do things"
        2. John Dewey, Randolph Bourne
      3. Trans-Atlantic scope of Progressive impulse
    3. Progressivism in municipal and state politics
      1. Agendas
        1. Curbing of political machines
        2. Regulation of public utilities, railroads, and other business interests
        3. Taxation of property and corporate wealth
        4. Improvement and enhancement of public space
        5. Humanizing of working and living conditions
      2. Significant municipal and state Progressives
        1. Mayors Hazen Pingree (Detroit) and Samuel "Golden Rule" Jones (Toledo)
        2. Governors Hiram Johnson (California) and Robert M. La Follette (Wisconsin)
    4. Progressive democracy
      1. Expansion and empowerment of electorate
        1. Popular election of U.S. senators, judges
        2. Primary elections
        3. Initiatives, referendums, recalls
        4. Women's suffrage
      2. Contraction and curtailment of electorate
        1. Disfranchisement of southern blacks
        2. Spread of appointed city commissions or managers
        3. Narrowing of voting rights for the poor
        4. Preference for government by experts; Walter Lippmann's Drift and Mastery
    5. Women reformers
      1. Challenge to political exclusion
      2. Crusades to uplift condition of immigrant poor, women, and child laborers
        1. Settlement house movement
        2. Government measures to alleviate problems of housing, labor, health
        3. Racist aspect
      3. Leading figures
        1. Jane Addams (Hull House)
        2. Julie Lathrop (Children's Bureau)
        3. Florence Kelley (National Consumers' League)
    6. Revival of suffrage movement
      1. National American Woman Suffrage Association
      2. Scattered progress at state and local levels
      3. Gathering focus on constitutional amendment
    7. Ambiguities of "maternalist" reform
      1. Drive to improve conditions of working women while reconfirming their dependent status
        1. Mothers' pensions
        2. Maximum working hours for women (Muller v. Oregon; Brandeis brief)
      2. Stamping of gender inequality into foundation for welfare state
    8. Native American Progressivism
      1. Profile of Indian reformers
        1. Intellectuals
        2. Pan-Indian
        3. Society of American Indians
      2. Shared aims
        1. Highlight plight of Native Americans
        2. Promote justice for Native Americans
      3. Differing aims
        1. Endorsement of federal Indian policy
        2. Full citizenship rights
        3. Self-determination
      4. Carlos Montezuma
  5. Progressive presidents
    1. Progressivism and the rise of the national state
    2. Theodore Roosevelt
      1. Succession to presidency; reelection in 1904
      2. Limits on corporate power
        1. "Good trusts" and "bad trusts"
        2. Northern Securities case
      3. Mediation between labor and capital; 1902 coal strike arbitration
      4. Regulation of business
        1. Hepburn Act
        2. Pure Food and Drug Act
        3. Meat Inspection Act
      5. Mixed reaction from business
      6. Conservation movement
        1. Late-nineteenth-century antecedents
          1. Early national parks
          2. Sierra Club; John Muir
        2. Wildlife preserves and national parks
        3. Balance between development and conservation; Gifford Pinchot
        4. Water as a key point of contention
    3. William Howard Taft
      1. Anointment as successor by Roosevelt; electoral victory over Bryan
      2. Partial continuation of Progressive agenda
        1. Antitrust initiatives
          1. Standard Oil case
          2. American Tobacco case
          3. Upholding of "good trust"/"bad trust" distinction by Supreme Court
        2. Support for graduated income tax (Sixteenth Amendment)
      3. Conservative drift; Pinchot-Ballinger affair
    4. Election of 1912
      1. Distinctive outlooks on political and economic freedom
        1. Woodrow Wilson (Democrat; "New Freedom")
        2. Theodore Roosevelt (Progressive; "New Nationalism")
        3. William Howard Taft (Republican; conservative wing)
        4. Eugene V. Debs (Socialist)
      2. Wilson victory
    5. Wilson's first-term program
      1. Underwood tariff
      2. Labor
        1. Clayton Act
        2. Keating-Owen Act
        3. Adamson Act
      3. Farmers: Warehouse Act
      4. Supervision of economy
        1. Federal Reserve System
        2. Federal Trade Commission


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How did mass consumption in the progressive era result in new consumer freedoms?

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What Progressive era economic was based on mass production and mass consumption?

Fordism is a term widely used to describe (1) the system of mass production that was pioneered in the early 20th century by the Ford Motor Company or (2) the typical postwar mode of economic growth and its associated political and social order in advanced capitalism.

How did progressives feel they could improve society?

Early progressives rejected Social Darwinism and believed that society's problems, such as poverty, poor health, violence, greed, racism, and class warfare, could be best eradicated through better education, a safer environment, a more efficient workplace, and a more honest government.

Which three conditions did the progressive movement work to improve?

The progressive movement had four major goals: (1) to protect social welfare, (2) to promote moral improvement, (3) to create economic reform, and (4) to foster efficiency. Reformers tried to promote social welfare by easing the problems of city life.

What was the lasting legacy of the progressive movement in America?

Among the many "successes" of Progressivism were antitrust laws, state and national income taxes, increased business regulation, minimum wage laws, direct election of U.S. senators, creation of the Federal Reserve System, and prohibition of alcoholic beverages.