"Reprography" is a category that includes copying and duplication processes. Copying, in this arena, refers to the production of a small batch of copies from an original. Duplicating, which encompasses printing processes, refers to the reproduction of virtually limitless copies. Since the emergence of digital tools, the distinction between the two has become less clear as hardware and software utilize and blend both. Show
Office Printing and Reprographic Processes"Ink" on Paper
Dye-Ink Transfer
Photographic
Electrostatic
Other Processes
Carbon CopySynonyms
Carbon copies may be typewritten or handwritten. Although it can come in nearly any color, carbon copy text will always be of a single color; and, the text will tend to be faint and dull. Black text is generally carbon pigment in a wax or oil base, and it will appear unfaded. Color text is aniline dye-based (likely blue, violet, red); these will often exhibit fading. Aniline dyes were used in both typewriter color ribbon and carbon papers (purple, blue, red inks). If the sheet bears more than one ink color and is opaque, it is likely the original top copy and thus not technically a carbon copy. Carbon copy text will lack the embossed quality of the directly typewritten top copy. Carbon copies are usually made on crisp, semi-translucent paper. Because it is essentially a thin tissue paper, carbon copy paper wrinkles easily but is actually quite strong. This paper may either be made of durable rag-stock ("onionskin") or a low-grade wood pulp (manifold paper). It typically is a white or canary color with an unglazed, sometimes cockled surface. Image and/or text will be slightly waxy or greasy; it will appear to float on the paper surface when viewed under low magnification. Each successive layer in the copy set will be appear more blurry, with ever lessening contrast. Copies tend to smudge very easily. When carbon copies are found along with their corresponding top copy sheet, this usually indicates that it was an outgoing document. Composition
Responsible display practices ensure the long-term preservation of collections. Facsimiles should be used whenever possible, and paper artifacts should not be displayed permanently. Light levels in the exhibition area should be kept low. Appropriate filters should be used to minimize exposure to ultraviolet light. Display cases should be enclosed and sealed to protect their contents, and their items should be securely framed or matted using preservation-quality materials that have passed the Photographic Activity Test (ISO 18916:2007). Black ink copies are generally quite stable and may be displayed. They should not be exposed to more than 30,000+ ft-c hours (300,000 lux hours) per year, and they should have a 1-year rest between displays. Color ink copies made using aniline dyes are highly sensitive to light. They should not be exposed to more than 5,000 ft-c hours (50,000 lux hours) per year, and they should have a 3-year rest between displays. Stencil CopySynonyms
Responsible display practices ensure the long-term preservation of collections. Facsimiles should be used whenever possible, and paper artifacts should not be displayed permanently. Light levels in the exhibition area should be kept low. Appropriate filters should be used to minimize exposure to ultraviolet light. Display cases should be enclosed and sealed to protect their contents, and their items should be securely framed or matted using preservation-quality materials that have passed the Photographic Activity Test (ISO 18916:2007). Black ink copies are generally quite stable and may be displayed. They should not be exposed to more than 30,000+ ft-c hours (300,000 lux hours) per year, and they should have a 1-year rest between displays. Color ink copies made using aniline dyes are highly sensitive to light. They should not be exposed to more than 5,000 ft-c hours (50,000 lux hours) per year, and they should have a 3-year rest between displays. TypographySynonyms
Responsible display practices ensure the long-term preservation of collections. Facsimiles should be used whenever possible, and paper artifacts should not be displayed permanently. Light levels in the exhibition area should be kept low. Appropriate filters should be used to minimize exposure to ultraviolet light. Display cases should be enclosed and sealed to protect their contents, and their items should be securely framed or matted using preservation-quality materials that have passed the Photographic Activity Test (ISO 18916:2007). Black ink copies are generally quite stable and may be displayed. They should not be exposed to more than 30,000+ ft-c hours (300,000 lux hours) per year, and they should have a 1-year rest between displays. Color ink copies made using aniline dyes are highly sensitive to light. They should not be exposed to more than 5,000 ft-c hours (50,000 lux hours) per year, and they should have a 3-year rest between displays. Offset Lithography (Office)Synonyms
Responsible display practices ensure the long-term preservation of collections. Facsimiles should be used whenever possible, and paper artifacts should not be displayed permanently. Light levels in the exhibition area should be kept low. Appropriate filters should be used to minimize exposure to ultraviolet light. Display cases should be enclosed and sealed to protect their contents, and their items should be securely framed or matted using preservation-quality materials that have passed the Photographic Activity Test (ISO 18916:2007). Black ink copies are generally quite stable and may be displayed. They should not be exposed to more than 30,000+ ft-c hours (300,000 lux hours) per year, and they should have a 1-year rest between displays. Impact PrintSynonyms
Responsible display practices ensure the long-term preservation of collections. Facsimiles should be used whenever possible, and paper artifacts should not be displayed permanently. Light levels in the exhibition area should be kept low. Appropriate filters should be used to minimize exposure to ultraviolet light. Display cases should be enclosed and sealed to protect their contents, and their items should be securely framed or matted using preservation-quality materials that have passed the Photographic Activity Test (ISO 18916:2007). Black ink copies are generally quite stable and may be displayed. They should not be exposed to more than 30,000+ ft-c hours (300,000 lux hours) per year, and they should have a 1-year rest between displays. Color ink copies made using aniline dyes are highly sensitive to light. They should not be exposed to more than 5,000 ft-c hours (50,000 lux hours) per year, and they should have a 3-year rest between displays. Hectograph Copy (Office)Synonyms
Responsible display practices ensure the long-term preservation of collections. Facsimiles should be used whenever possible, and paper artifacts should not be displayed permanently. Light levels in the exhibition area should be kept low. Appropriate filters should be used to minimize exposure to ultraviolet light. Display cases should be enclosed and sealed to protect their contents, and their items should be securely framed or matted using preservation-quality materials that have passed the Photographic Activity Test (ISO 18916:2007). Hectographs were made using aniline dyes that are highly sensitive to light. They should not be exposed to more than 5,000 ft-c hours (50,000 lux hours) per year, and they should have a 3-year rest between displays. Spirit DuplicateSynonyms
Responsible display practices ensure the long-term preservation of collections. Facsimiles should be used whenever possible, and paper artifacts should not be displayed permanently. Light levels in the exhibition area should be kept low. Appropriate filters should be used to minimize exposure to ultraviolet light. Display cases should be enclosed and sealed to protect their contents, and their items should be securely framed or matted using preservation-quality materials that have passed the Photographic Activity Test (ISO 18916:2007). Spirit duplicates were made using aniline dyes that are highly sensitive to light. They should not be exposed to more than 5,000 ft-c hours (50,000 lux hours) per year, and they should have a 3-year rest between displays. Photostat Copy (Office)Synonyms
Responsible display practices ensure the long-term preservation of collections. Facsimiles should be used whenever possible, and paper artifacts should not be displayed permanently. Light levels in the exhibition area should be kept low. Appropriate filters should be used to minimize exposure to ultraviolet light. Display cases should be enclosed and sealed to protect their contents, and their items should be securely framed or matted using preservation-quality materials that have passed the Photographic Activity Test (ISO 18916:2007). If the print appears well-processed and stable, it may be displayed for up to 30,000+ ft-c hours (300,000 lux hours) per year with a 1-year rest between displays. Photostat prints were often poorly processed, however, so a more conservative approach to display may be required (5,000 ft-c hours [50,000 lux hours] per year with a 3-year rest between displays). Diffusion TransferSynonyms
Responsible display practices ensure the long-term preservation of collections. Facsimiles should be used whenever possible, and paper artifacts should not be displayed permanently. Light levels in the exhibition area should be kept low. Appropriate filters should be used to minimize exposure to ultraviolet light. Display cases should be enclosed and sealed to protect their contents, and their items should be securely framed or matted using preservation-quality materials that have passed the Photographic Activity Test (ISO 18916:2007). Although similar to silver gelatin photographs, diffusion transfer prints frequently contain residual chemicals, making them particularly sensitive to light. As a result, a conservative approach to display may be required of 5,000 ft-c hours [50,000 lux hours] per year with a 3-year rest between displays. Dual SpectrumDates1963 – early 1970sPrevalenceFairly commonSupportPaper with acrylic coatingPaper FibersNot visiblePaper TonePastel pink or cream coloredImage/Text ToneMonochrome (dark red-brown or black)DescriptionDual spectrum copies can be identified by a distinctive flame emblem (usually light blue) on the verso of the final copy. Image/text is clear and sharp, ranging from dark red brown to black. The image/text could be copied from any original document, including those that were handwritten or typed by various methods. As a result, there is no uniform appearance to the text of dual spectrum copies, other than sharp quality of the image reproduction (unless it was produced from an original document of poor quality) and the text color. The paper ground may be pinkish or cream. The special coated paper used to create dual spectrum copies was available in a range of weights and varies from flimsy to bond weight.Composition
Responsible display practices ensure the long-term preservation of collections. Facsimiles should be used whenever possible, and paper artifacts should not be displayed permanently. Light levels in the exhibition area should be kept low. Appropriate filters should be used to minimize exposure to ultraviolet light. Display cases should be enclosed and sealed to protect their contents, and their items should be securely framed or matted using preservation-quality materials that have passed the Photographic Activity Test (ISO 18916:2007). If the print appears well-processed and stable, it may be displayed up to 30,000+ ft-c hours (300,000 lux hours) per year with a 1-year rest between displays. Electrostatic Xerox Copy (Office)Synonyms
Electrostatic Xerox copies tend to be very stable and image permanent since the toner is black carbon pigment in a resin carrier—both inert materials. Proper processing will ensure permanence but is dependent upon the quality of the paper. Electrostatic copies should be stored at moderate temperature and relative humidity. Because the resin binders are thermoplastic polymers with low softening temperatures, avoid storage under conditions of heat and/or pressure. Experience has shown that the binder resins in xerographic copies are vulnerable to blocking to adjacent surfaces with heat or pressure. Contact with polyvinyl chloride plastic can cause softening and transfer to adjacent surfaces because of plasticizer migration from the plastic. A black Xerox copy can be expected to have good to excellent light stability, depending on the quality of the paper support. Risk LevelLow. Store in a moderate environment. Avoid exposure to heat and pressure, in addition to polyester storage materials, as any one of them could cause toner loss and transfer to adjacent materials.ProcessElectrostatic copies are made through a five step process. First, a photoconductive selenium plate or drum is charged. The plate or drum is then exposed to a pattern of light from the original document, leaving only the image areas charged. A powdered toner is then applied over the plate or drum which only adheres to the electrostatically charged areas. The sheet of copy paper, which is given an electrical charge of opposite polarity to the plate or drum, is then brought in contact with the plate or drum thus transferring the image. The toner is fused to the paper with heat.Background The first commercial xerographic machines were produced by the Haloid Company (now Xerox Corporation) in 1949. The first machines were manual, with the first semi-automatic machine, the Copyflo, being released in 1955. Xerox released the first all-in-one copier, the Xerox 914, in 1959; and after that point, monochromatic electrostatic copying began to dominate the office copying market. Although additional single color toners were produced in the late 1950s, it was not until the Xerox 6500 color copier’s introduction in 1973 that full-color xerography arrived (see Color Photocopy). Since the 1960s, electrostatic copiers have remained the most popular office copying machine due to their simplicity and speed. Speaking to the prevalence of the copy process throughout the latter half of the twentieth century, Xerox'ed photographs are commonly found among paper documents. Storage Environment Cool storage (below 50 degrees) is recommended, and colder is generally better. Allowable Fluctuation: ±2°F; ±3% RH
Responsible display practices ensure the long-term preservation of collections. Facsimiles should be used whenever possible, and paper artifacts should not be displayed permanently. Light levels in the exhibition area should be kept low. Appropriate filters should be used to minimize exposure to ultraviolet light. Display cases should be enclosed and sealed to protect their contents, and their items should be securely framed or matted using preservation-quality materials that have passed the Photographic Activity Test (ISO 18916:2007). Light exposure during exhibition should be restricted, especially for dye-based copies and copies on zinc oxide coated paper. Electrostatic Xerox copies may be displayed up to 30,000+ ft-c hours (300,000 lux hours) per year with a 1-year rest between displays. Color PhotocopyVarious color photocopies. Image courtesy of Ian Batterham. Synonyms
Responsible display practices ensure the long-term preservation of collections. Facsimiles should be used whenever possible, and paper artifacts should not be displayed permanently. Light levels in the exhibition area should be kept low. Appropriate filters should be used to minimize exposure to ultraviolet light. Display cases should be enclosed and sealed to protect their contents, and their items should be securely framed or matted using preservation-quality materials that have passed the Photographic Activity Test (ISO 18916:2007). Color pigments are sensitive to light. Use of facsimiles for display is recommended. If color photocopies are displayed, they should be exposed to no more than 5,000 ft-c hours (50,000 lux hours) per year with a 3-year rest between displays. Laser Print (Office)Datesc. 1978 – presentPrevalenceCommonSupportPlain copy paper or polyester transparency filmFibers (if paper)VisibleImage/Text ToneMonochrome (carbon black) or color (CMYK)DescriptionLaser printing is an electrostatic printing process that is nearly identical to the xerographic copy process—the difference being that laser prints come from a digital source (i.e. printed from a computer). Unlike the electrostatic photocopying processes, there are no visual artifacts or edges of an original document visible, and the text/image is square on the page. Laser prints can be made using the same toners as plain paper electrostatic copies. Prints may be black-and-white (black toner contains resin and black carbon pigment) or color (CMYK toner containing resin and four colored pigments—cyan, magenta, yellow, and black carbon pigment). Laser printing may also be used to produce oversized technical and architectural drawings.Composition
Responsible display practices ensure the long-term preservation of collections. Facsimiles should be used whenever possible, and paper artifacts should not be displayed permanently. Light levels in the exhibition area should be kept low. Appropriate filters should be used to minimize exposure to ultraviolet light. Display cases should be enclosed and sealed to protect their contents, and their items should be securely framed or matted using preservation-quality materials that have passed the Photographic Activity Test (ISO 18916:2007). Laser prints should be exposed to no more than 5,000 ft-c hours (50,000 lux hours) per year with a 3-year rest between displays. Copybook and Roller CopySynonyms
Responsible display practices ensure the long-term preservation of collections. Facsimiles should be used whenever possible, and paper artifacts should not be displayed permanently. Light levels in the exhibition area should be kept low. Appropriate filters should be used to minimize exposure to ultraviolet light. Display cases should be enclosed and sealed to protect their contents, and their items should be securely framed or matted using preservation-quality materials that have passed the Photographic Activity Test (ISO 18916:2007). Copybook copies contain dye- or iron-based inks which are highly light sensitive. Low-grade paper will deteriorate more rapidly if exposed to UV light. If copybook copies are displayed, they should be exposed to no more than 5,000 ft-c hours (50,000 lux hours) per year, with a 3-year rest between displays. Diazo Print (Office)Synonyms
Responsible display practices ensure the long-term preservation of collections. Facsimiles should be used whenever possible, and paper artifacts should not be displayed permanently. Light levels in the exhibition area should be kept low. Appropriate filters should be used to minimize exposure to ultraviolet light. Display cases should be enclosed and sealed to protect their contents, and their items should be securely framed or matted using preservation-quality materials that have passed the Photographic Activity Test (ISO 18916:2007). Diazo prints are highly sensitive to light. If originals are displayed, they should not be displayed for longer than 3 months at 3 ft-c maximum with a 3-year rest period between display cycles. Thermal Print / ThermofaxSynonyms
Responsible display practices ensure the long-term preservation of collections. Facsimiles should be used whenever possible, and paper artifacts should not be displayed permanently. Light levels in the exhibition area should be kept low. Appropriate filters should be used to minimize exposure to ultraviolet light. Display cases should be enclosed and sealed to protect their contents, and their items should be securely framed or matted using preservation-quality materials that have passed the Photographic Activity Test (ISO 18916:2007). Thermal prints of any kind should not be displayed. ElectrofaxDates1954 – 1980sPrevalenceFairly commonSupportPaper w/ zinc oxide coatingPaper FibersNot visiblePaper ToneLight grayImage/Text ToneMonochrome (gray-black) or color (rare)DescriptionThe image/text side of the copy is coated with a shiny layer of finely divided white pigment (zinc oxide). The image/text itself is a gray-black color and of low contrast, which progressively fades further over time. The ground color of the paper is a faint gray, although sometimes it appears to have a bluish tint. From 1977 onward, the electrofax logo—a pale yellow outline of a cactus—may be on the verso. Composition
Responsible display practices ensure the long-term preservation of collections. Facsimiles should be used whenever possible, and paper artifacts should not be displayed permanently. Light levels in the exhibition area should be kept low. Appropriate filters should be used to minimize exposure to ultraviolet light. Display cases should be enclosed and sealed to protect their contents, and their items should be securely framed or matted using preservation-quality materials that have passed the Photographic Activity Test (ISO 18916:2007). Electrofax documents should not be displayed. Carbonless Copy (NCR)Synonyms
Responsible display practices ensure the long-term preservation of collections. Facsimiles should be used whenever possible, and paper artifacts should not be displayed permanently. Light levels in the exhibition area should be kept low. Appropriate filters should be used to minimize exposure to ultraviolet light. Display cases should be enclosed and sealed to protect their contents, and their items should be securely framed or matted using preservation-quality materials that have passed the Photographic Activity Test (ISO 18916:2007). Carbonless copies are highly light sensitive and should not be displayed. Inkjet Print (Office)Dates1984 – presentPrevalenceCommonSupportVaries; may be plain uncoated paper, or paper with a waxy or glossy coating (coating substance varies)Paper FibersVisibility varies by paper manufactureImage/Text ToneMonochrome or color (CMYK); dye- or pigment-basedDescriptionIn cases of black-and-white text copy, the paper is often plain uncoated copy paper. Color images will likely be printed on bright white paper, which is often produced to mimic photo paper with glossy or matte surfaces and a polymeric feel. Depending on the type of paper used, inkjet prints may be made with a variety of CMYK dyes and pigments. Inkjet images are composed of very tiny cyan, magenta, yellow, and black dots in any number of patterns. See Inkjet Print for additional information about inkjet inks and papers. Inkjet is also fairly common as a modern printing process for architectural layouts rendered on with computer software (e.g. CAD). These layouts are large-scale line vector graphics that are often printed on paper but can sometimes be printed on either polyester film or vellum paper. Composition
Responsible display practices ensure the long-term preservation of collections. Facsimiles should be used whenever possible, and paper artifacts should not be displayed permanently. Light levels in the exhibition area should be kept low. Appropriate filters should be used to minimize exposure to ultraviolet light. Display cases should be enclosed and sealed to protect their contents, and their items should be securely framed or matted using preservation-quality materials that have passed the Photographic Activity Test (ISO 18916:2007). Inkjet prints should be exposed to no more than 5,000 ft-c hours (50,000 lux hours) per year with a 3-year rest between displays. Resources
What is anything printed on a surface that is a direct result from the duplication process?A print is anything printed on a surface that is a direct result from a duplicating process.
Is the practice of applying paint pigment color or other medium to a surface like wall paper canvas wood and glass?Painting is the practice of applying paint, pigment, color or other medium to a solid surface (called the "matrix" or "support"). The medium is commonly applied to the base with a brush, but other implements, such as knives, sponges, and airbrushes, can be used.
What are the 4 main functions of art?Determining the Function of Art
Next time you are trying to understand a piece of art, try to remember these four points: (1) context and (2) personal, (3) social, and (4) physical functions. Remember that some art serves only one function and some all three (perhaps even more).
Is another by product of metal consisting of copper and tin with color and is one of the most universally popular metals for sculpture?Bronze: A very dense alloy of 60% copper and 40% tin, bronze is the most universally popular metal used in the casting of sculpture.
|