Show
 Under a Creative Commons license Open access Highlights• Predictive processing in cognition may emerge from pattern completion through time. •Pattern completion is a common property of distributed representations. •Distributed representations result from connected microfeatures in a network. •A pattern-completing network with no prediction mechanism still makes predictions. AbstractWhile the notion of the brain as a prediction machine has been extremely influential and productive in cognitive science, there are competing accounts of how best to model and understand the predictive capabilities of brains. One prominent framework is of a “Bayesian brain” that explicitly generates predictions and uses resultant errors to guide adaptation. We suggest that the prediction-generation component of this framework may involve little more than a pattern completion process. We first describe pattern completion in the domain of visual perception, highlighting its temporal extension, and show how this can entail a form of prediction in time. Next, we describe the forward momentum of entrained dynamical systems as a model for the emergence of predictive processing in non-predictive systems. Then, we apply this reasoning to the domain of language, where explicitly predictive models are perhaps most popular. Here, we demonstrate how a connectionist model, TRACE, exhibits hallmarks of predictive processing without any representations of predictions or errors. Finally, we present a novel neural network model, inspired by reservoir computing models, that is entirely unsupervised and memoryless, but nonetheless exhibits prediction-like behavior in its pursuit of homeostasis. These explorations demonstrate that brain-like systems can get prediction “for free,” without the need to posit formal logical representations with Bayesian probabilities or an inference machine that holds them in working memory. KeywordsPredictive processing Predictive coding Pattern completion Language Dynamical systems theory Neural networks Cited by (0)© 2021 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. All AP Psychology ResourcesWhich of the following describes the difference between sensation and perception? Possible Answers: Sensation requires transduction an perception does not Perception requires transduction and sensation does not None of these Perception is a bottom-up process and sensation is a top-down process Sensation is a bottom-up process and perception is a top-down process Correct answer: Sensation is a bottom-up process and perception is a top-down process Explanation: Sensation can be described as the process of how our nervous system and sensory receptors receive and translate stimuli from our environment. Perception is the process by which our brains organize and interpret sensory stimuli, which allows us to recognize significant events and objects. Sensation functions as a bottom-up process because it starts at a smaller level and works its way up (i.e. from sensory receptors to processing centers). Perception functions as a top-down process because it starts at a larger level and gets smaller as it continues (i.e. from the sensory input down to our expectations and experiences). Which of the following theories predicts when and how we detect a stimulus amid background noise? Possible Answers: Signal detection theory Subliminal theory Transduction theory Priming theory Absolute threshold theory Correct answer: Signal detection theory Explanation: The signal detection theory predicts when we will detect weak signals (stimuli). This theory negates the idea of absolute thresholds because the purpose is to ascertain why individuals react to the same stimulus differently. Additionally, it seeks to understand why one individual may perceive a stimulus differently based on circumstances. For instance, an exhausted parent may jump at the slightest whimper of a sleeping baby but fail to recognize a louder noise (i.e. the dryer buzzer indicating dry clothes). The absolute threshold is defined as the minimum stimulus required for detection 50 percent of the time; therefore, it is an incorrect choice. Conversely, a stimulus may be considered subliminal when it is below one's conscious awareness: not detected 50 percent of the time. This is also incorrect. Transduction would be incorrect because it is the process by which stimuli are translated from sensation to perception. Last, priming is also incorrect because it is defined as the process of predisposing one's memory, perception, or response by making unconscious associations. This is usually exercised in experiments using flashing images and masking stimuli. Which of the following best defines a difference threshold? Possible Answers: The difference in absolute threshold and sensory adaptation. The minimal difference between two stimuli that can be detected 50 percent of the time. The difference between two subliminal thresholds. The difference between two absolute thresholds. The difference between an absolute threshold and a subliminal stimulus. Correct answer: The minimal difference between two stimuli that can be detected 50 percent of the time. Explanation: The difference threshold is the noticeable difference a person can detect between any two stimuli 50 percent of the time. The concept of difference threshold is often associated with Weber's law. This law states that in order for an individual to perceive a difference between to stimuli then the stimuli must be a certain percent different and not a given amount. This becomes an issue of proportion versus static amount. Which of the following statements associated with Hering's opponent-process theory are true? Possible Answers: There are two sets of opponent retinal processes: red-green-blue and black-white There are three sets of opponent retinal processes: red-blue, green-yellow, and white-black There are six sets of retinal processes: red, blue, green, yellow, black, and white There are three sets of retinal processes: red, blue, green There are three sets of opponent retinal processes: red-green, blue-yellow, and white-black Correct answer: There are three sets of opponent retinal processes: red-green, blue-yellow, and white-black Explanation: Ewald Hering created the opponent-process theory. While he saw truth in the Young-Helmholtz trichromatic theory, he felt that it left many questions of color vision unanswered. For example, how is it that people that cannot see red or green see yellow? Hering came to an understanding using “afterimages.” For instance, if you stare at a green square for long enough and then stare at a white sheet of paper, you will see a red square. Red in this case is green's opponent color. The same works for yellow and blue and black and white. You may be familiar with figures in text books having an image of a flag that's normally red, blue, and white be colored in green, yellow and black. with a blank white space next to it. This is an example of the afterimage effect, staring at the discolored flag for an ample period of time and then immediately staring at a blank white space will yield the creation of an image of the flag in its normal colors. A century later, researchers supported Hering’s theory. There are three sets of opponent retinal receptors: green-red, blue-yellow, and black-white. This theory complements the Young-Helmholtz theory. Humans can easily detect movement of an object in your peripheral vision, but have trouble identifying the exact shape or color of the object. Which of the following is the most probable cause of this phenomenon? Possible Answers: The individual is nearsighted There are more rods than cones in the periphery of the retina The object is in your blind spot There are more cones than rods in the periphery of the retina Correct answer: There are more rods than cones in the periphery of the retina Explanation: The periphery of the retina contains many more rods than cones. Rods allow people to easily detect changes in light, and cones allow us to see in color and are located in the center—fovea—of the retina where visual acuity is best. Rods might not help us with seeing things super accurately, but they do help us with detecting motion because of the changes in light. The blind spot is where the bundle of nerves at the rear of the eye chamber block incoming light to hit the retina; thus, creating a "hole" in our vision. Nearsightedness has to do with visual acuity based on distance from the object, not peripheral vision. A single drop of chocolate pudding is placed on your tongue. You are told not to move it around on your tongue, and you begin to notice that the original chocolaty flavor begins to fade until there is no taste at all. This scenario is indicative of which of the following principles? Possible Answers: Habituation Taste bud cell death Boredom Sensory adaptation Correct answer: Sensory adaptation Explanation: Sensory adaptation is a gradual decline in sensitivity to prolonged stimulation. Senses—in this case taste—will automatically adapt to decline their sensitivity to stimulation over time. Habituation is a closely related concept that involves less sensitivity over time; however, habituation has to do more with physiological, cognitive, and perceptual processes rather than basic sensory processes. Taste bud cell death does not occur after prolonged stimulation. When do action potentials occur? Possible Answers: When sodium ions enter the neuron to make the membrane potential more negative When sodium ions enter the neuron to make the membrane potential more positive When sodium ions exit the neuron to make the membrane potential more negative When sodium ions exit the neuron to make the membrane potential more positive When potassium ions exit the neuron to make the membrane potential more positive Correct answer: When sodium ions enter the neuron to make the membrane potential more positive Explanation: Action potentials are caused when different ions cross the neuron's membrane. The inside of the neuron becomes more positive due to the rush of sodium into the cell during depolarization. This raises the membrane potential from resting (roughly ) to the threshold level of about , which triggers the action potential and raises the membrane potential to roughly . Following the action potential, potassium exits the neuron to reduce the membrane potential before the sodium-potassium pump restores the resting potential. Although you wear glasses throughout the day, you don't contantly notice them on your face, on the bridge of your nose, or on the tops of your ears. Why is this? Possible Answers: Long term potentiation Sensory adaptation Selective neural firing If you had to notice all the time, it would be impossible to wear glasses Your memory has a way to process unpleasant stimuli and repress them Correct answer: Sensory adaptation Explanation: Over time, a constant stimulus in the environment evokes less and less of a response from one's sensory system. Sensory neurons respond at first to these stimuli, but over time they stop responding in order to focus attention on other stimuli in the environment. What types of retinal cells allow us to perceive color? Possible Answers: Sympathetic ganglion Rods Bipolar neurons Cones Parasympathetic ganglion Explanation: The human retina has two types of cells that respond to light: cones and rods. Rods are more numerous, but can only detect light and dark shades. Cones respond to different wavelenghts of light, and can thus transmit color information. They are highly concentrated in the fovea of the retina. Which term refers to the part of a visual field that has no photoreceptors, and thus cannot detect images? Possible Answers: Retina Optic disk Iris Fovea centralis Black spot Correct answer: Optic disk Explanation: Every visual field has a blind spot, where there are no rods and cones (known as photoreceptors) to detect external images. Our brain uses context clues from the environment to help fill in this blind spot to make a complete picture. The blind spot is located on the optic disk, which is the location where the optic nerve exits the back of the eye. Due to the nerve tissue in this spot, there are no photoreceptors to detect input. In contrast, the fovea centralis is the region of the retina with the highest concentration of cones. All AP Psychology ResourcesWhich theory predicts how and when we detect the presence of a stimulus amid background stimulation?Signal detection theory: predicts how and when we detect the presence of a faint stimulus (signal) amid background stimulation (noise). This theory assumes there is no single absolute threshold and that detection depends partly on a person's experience, expectations, motivation, and alertness.
What is the process by which our sensory systems convert stimulus energies into neural messages?The process by which our sensory systems convert stimulus energies into neural messages is called: transduction.
What is the smallest difference between two stimuli?A difference threshold is the minimum required difference between two stimuli for a person to notice change 50% of the time (and you already know where that “50% of the time” came from). The difference threshold is also called just noticeable difference, which translates the concept more clearly.
Which process allows more light to reach the periphery of the retina?a placebo effect. Which process allows more light to reach the periphery of the retina? Dilation of the pupil.
|
Which theory predicts when we will first notice a faint stimulus presented amid competing background stimulation?
zusammenhängende Posts
Urheberrechte © © 2024 de.ketajaman Inc.
