Which of the following statements accurately apply to the dimensions of the speaking situation

In operant conditioning, extinction occurs because ____.

reinforcement no longer follows the behavior

Why does associative learning provide an enormous survival advantage?

Organisms can predict the future and thus are given time to prepare for future events.

What is a consequence that has the effect of decreasing the chance that the behavior that came before it will happen again?

Which of the following is NOT a step in classical conditioning?

Determining a schedule of reinforcement

The formation of associations between two stimuli, which occur sequentially in time, is referred to as ____.

How can extinction be avoided with operant conditioning?

Continuously reinforce a behavior, even after it is learned.

What is an advantage of observational learning?

It transmits information across generations.

As Angel speeds down Elm Avenue, he suddenly slams on his brakes to avoid a collision with another car. Angel's response is an example of a(n) ____.

Presentation of a rewarding stimulus serves as ____, whereas removal of an aversive stimulus serves as ____.

positive reinforcement; negative reinforcement

Classical conditioning is learning in which ____.

a previously neutral stimulus becomes capable of triggering a reflexive response

Watson and Skinner believed that ____.

personality is shaped by rewards and punishments

Who would have argued that we do not need to directly be reinforced or punished to learn?

Reinforcers, whether they be positive or negative, have the same effect on behavior, which is to:

increase the probability that the behavior will be repeated

The law of effect was proposed by ____.

____ is the removal of an aversive stimulus that serves to increase a behavior, and ____ is the removal of a reinforcing stimulus to decrease a behavior.

Negative reinforcement; negative punishment

A schedule of reinforcement in which the first response after a specified period of time will be reinforced is called a ____.

Miranda comes home late one evening past her curfew only to find her parents waiting up for her. Her father says, "Miranda, you're late! You may not use the car for an entire month." Miranda's father is using ____.

In a typical classical conditioning experiment by Pavlov, a buzzer or tone serves as a(n) ____.

neutral stimulus that becomes a conditioned stimulus.

Who was responsible for the classical conditioning of Little Albert?

John Watson and Rosalie Rayner

If conditioning has taken place, the neutral stimulus becomes the ____.

inborn pattern of behavior elicited by environmental stimuli; also known as a fixed action pattern

reinforcement occurs following a set number of behaviors

first response following a varying period is reinforced

first response following a specified interval is reinforced

reinforcement occurs following some variable number of behaviors

relatively permanent change in behavior or the capacity for behavior due to experience

formation of connections among stimuli and behaviors

type of learning in which associations form between two stimuli that occur sequentially in time

type of learning in which associations are formed between behaviors and their outcomes

learning that involves changes in the magnitude of responses to stimuli

form of learning in which reactions to repeated stimuli that are unchanging and harmless decrease

increased reaction to many stimuli following exposure to one strong stimulus

conditioned stimulus (CS)

environmental event whose significance is learned through classical conditioning

unconditioned stimulus (UCS)

elicits a response without prior experience

unconditioned response (UCR)

reaction to an unconditioned stimulus that requires no previous experience

development of a learned response

conditioned response (CR)

reaction learned through classical conditioning

during extinction training, the reappearance of conditioned responses after periods of rest

feature of classical conditioning in which a conditioned stimulus predicts the nonoccurrence of an unconditioned stimulus

tendency to respond to stimuli that are similar to an original conditioned stimulus

learned ability to distinguish between stimuli

higher-order conditioning

learning in which stimuli associated with a conditioned stimulus also elicit conditioned responses

slower learning that occurs when a conditioned stimulus is already familiar than when unfamiliar

application of counterconditioning in which a conditioned stimulus is paired with an unpleasant unconditioned stimulus

systematic desensitization

type of counterconditioning in which people relax while being exposed to stimuli that elicit fear

gains value from being associated with other things that are valued

method for increasing behaviors that allow an organism to escape or avoid an unpleasant consequence

consequence that eliminates or reduces the frequency of a behavior by applying an aversive stimulus

method for reducing behavior by removing something desirable whenever the target behavior occurs

reinforcement of a desired behavior on some occasions, but not others

partial reinforcement effect in extinction

increases following continuous reinforcement compared to that following partial reinforcement

method of successive approximations

method for increasing the frequency of behaviors that never or rarely occur

occurs in the absence of reinforcement

items that can be exchanged for other reinforcers increase the frequency of desirable behaviors

Which of the following activities is thought to involve mirror neurons?

a. Watching and imitating the physical actions or movements of others.

b. All of these involve mirror neurons.

c. Thinking about performing a physical action or movement.

d. Putting ourselves in other people's shoes and understanding their emotional state.

b. All of these involve mirror neurons.

From an evolutionary perspective, what adaptive value do mirror neurons have?

They help people create social bonds and form groups, so they don't have to face danger individually.

Researchers hope that teaching individuals with high functioning autism to increase the activity of their mirror neurons will:

help develop imitative skills and social interaction

Tolerance is often a condition that follows repeated exposure to a drug. In this experiment, how did the researchers develop tolerance in the rats?

By repeatedly injecting the rats with heroin during the pretest sessions

What differed between the same-tested and different-tested groups during the test session?

The environment in which the injection was administered

How did the difference identified in the previous question most likely lead to the difference in fatality rates?

The unfamiliar environment caused the different-tested rats not to anticipate the heroin injection, increasing their fatality rate.

An "environmental factor" accounting for the racial differences in IQ scores would focus on ____.

Which of the following, in English, can be either a phoneme or a morpheme?

One function of concepts is that they allow us to ____.

group things into categories and then effectively organize them in memory

Max, an attorney, is attending a hearing at the federal courthouse. He opens the courthouse door for a young woman with a tattoo on her forearm. When Max enters the room of the hearing, he is stunned to see that the assigned judge is the same woman. Max had applied the ____.

representativeness heuristic

Among these individuals, who would be considered the earliest pioneer in the field of intelligence testing?

As you are driving to your friend's new apartment, you realize that you forgot the address of the apartment building. You know that the apartment is north of his old apartment. As you drive down the street where his old apartment is, you begin looking at the signs: Azalea Drive, Oak Circle, Peach Tree Street, and Sycamore Drive. You remember that the apartment is on a Drive, not a street or circle, which narrows down the possibilities and illustrates your use of a(n)

_____ refers to the representation of any sensory experience sotred in memory.

Having been a college professor for over 30 years, James, who is 58 years old, has been described as a little "slower on the uptake" than when he was younger. However, he also tends to "know the ropes" regarding his job better than when he was younger. This would mean that James is

high in crystallized intelligence and low in fluid intelligence.

Little Mickey says, "Wook at the wabbit." Mickey is having trouble with the "l" and "r" speech sounds, which would be classified as a __________ problem.

Human beings are capable of producing over ______ phonemes, which are the basic units of spoken sound in a language.

A ________ is a set of facts and relationships between facts that can be used to explain and predict phenomena.

Socioeconomic status ____.

is positively correlated with IQ

Carol is given a beautiful, unique glass container with a curved handle. Whether she decides that this container is a decorative vase, bowl, or cup will be determined by her comparison of this container to

When your friend remarks pessimistically that crime is increasing (Did you see that gruesome murder on the news last night?), you recognize the operation of the ____.

Professor Booth calls on Jessamyn to state the definition of "intelligence." She responds by describing intelligence as "the ability to understand complex ideas, adapt effectively to the environment, learn from experience, communicate quickly and efficiently, and overcome obstacles." Which part of her definition is the least likely component of intelligence?

Communicate quickly and efficiently.

What historical figure is most closely associated to the two-factor theory of intelligence?

The nature-nurture question contemplates the contribution of ____ and ____ to the development of intelligence.

genetic factors; environmental factors

If you have ever been without a screwdriver and took a dime out of your pocket and used it to loosen a screw, then you did not let which of the following be a barrier to your thinking?

What are the qualities that each intelligence test should have?

Those who have an IQ that is assessed to be between _____ and _____ may suffer from a moderate intellectual disability.

A vocabulary "explosion" during which children acquire new words at a rapid rate typically begins around:

As children learn the rules for combining words and using suffixes to modify words, they often engage in overregularization. What is one common overregularization error children make?

They apply a suffix to a word instead modifying the root of the word (e.g. "tooths" instead of "teeth" or "fighted" instead of "fought").

The stage of language acquisition in which children start to use ________ to make a request occurs by about ________ .

complete sentences; four years of age

internal mental processes including information processing, thinking, reasoning, and problem solving

shortcut to problem solving; also known as a rule of thumb

frequency of an event’s occurrence is predicted by the ease with which it is thought of

stimuli similar to a prototype are believed to be more likely than dissimilar stimuli

representativeness heuristic

higher value is placed on the more easily recognized alternative

choice between alternatives based on emotional or “gut” reactions to stimuli

organizing principle derived from experience

representation of a category formed by averaging all members of the category

specific member of a category used to represent the category

situation in which a current state is separated from an ideal state by obstacles

use of information to meet a specific goal

possible barrier to successful problem solving; concept is considered only in its most typical form

precise, step-by-step set of rules that will reliably generate a solution to a problem

system for communicating thoughts and feelings using arbitrary signals

smallest component of speech that carries meaning

loss of the ability to speak or understand language

proficient in two languages

ability to understand complex ideas, adapt effectively, learn from experience, reason, and overcome obstacles

intelligence quotient (IQ)

measure of individual abilities relative to a statistically normal curve

measure of an individual's overall abilities as opposed to specific abilities

ability to think logically without the need to use learned knowledge

crystallized intelligence

ability to think logically using specific learned knowledge

condition diagnosed in individuals with IQ scores below 70 and poor adaptive behaviors

extreme of intelligence defined as having an IQ score of 130 or above

What was the primary difference between the control and experimental groups in this experiment?

The experimental group was asked to provide reasons for liking or disliking the jams they tasted, whereas the control group was not.

Which of the following statements accurately describes the ratings made by the participants in this experiment?

The jam rated second best by the control group was rated fourth best by the experimental group.

Wilson and Schooler state that analysis "changed people's minds about how they felt" in this experiment. Which of the following thought processes is consistent with this assertion?

They focused on attributes that were detectable but not necessarily relevant to liking, then altered their opinion so that it matched their analysis.

All EXCEPT which of the following are characteristic of the preoperational stage of cognitive development?

By the time people reach 80 years of age, the average brain will have decreased in weight by about ______ percent.

Gender is to ____ as sex is to ____.

A(n) ____ attachment style is characterized by the infant paying little attention to the mother and easily separating from her, whereas an ____ attachment style is characterized by the infant clinging to the mother and being reluctant to explore.

insecure-avoidant; insecure-resistant

What is an important elaboration of Piaget's concept of egocentrism?

Tina is introducing her topic by saying, "Today I will be talking about the fundamental emotional bond that develops between the infant and the caregiver." What is the topic of her presentation?

In their research with baby rhesus monkeys, the Harlows demonstrated that ____ was a strong determinant of attachment.

Teratogens can interfere with prenatal development and harm the unborn child by ____.

passing from the placenta into the fetus's blood supply

In Piaget's theory, the tendency to view the world only from one's own perspective, characteristic of the pre-operational stage, is ____.

When Monica turned 13, she seemed to hit puberty overnight. Her parents marveled at how she began changing from a girl into a woman seemingly all at once. In developmental psychology, Monica would be can example of ________ change.

Andre is very organized and efficient but also very anxious and tense. On which two of the five-factor personality model dimensions would Andre rate highly?

Conscientiousness; neuroticism

The complete cessation of a woman's menstrual cycles is called ____.

Baby Anastasia is in her mother's arms when her mother gets distracted. The baby's head begins to fall backwards, so Anastasia spreads her arms out to the side in an automatic response. This is called the ________ reflex.

Which activity might allow Gwyneth to help her six-month-old granddaughter develop object permanence?

Playing peek-a-boo with her

Luis is eight years old. He is becoming quite good at arguing with his parents over what his bedtime should be, whether he has eaten enough of his supper to have dessert, etc. He loves toys and projects that involve hands-on learning. According to Piaget, Luis is in the ____ of cognitive development.

concrete operational stage

Currently in the United States, ____ percent of those polled regard an unmarried couple with children to be a family.

Regarding the development of gender identity, which of the following statements is TRUE?

Most scientists believe that gender identity involves a complex interaction between nature and nurture.

Developmental psychologists describe prenatal development as occurring in ____.

three stages: germinal, embryonic, and fetal

Which stage in Piaget's theory of cognitive development best describes the infant s/child's interaction with the world through action and purposeful manipulation of objects?

Which psychologist suggested that the primary process of the adolescent years is the search for one's identity?

The time in a woman's life when menstruation ends is called ____.

developing organism immediately following conception or the first 2 gestational weeks in humans

begins at birth and ends at the age of 2 years; characterized by active environmental exploration

occurs between the ages of 2–6 years; characterized by egocentrism and limits on logical reasoning

occurs between the age of 6–12 years; characterized by logical but not abstract reasoning

concrete operational stage

begins at age 12 and extends through adulthood; characterized by mature reasoning capabilities

developing organism between the zygote and the fetus stages or gestational weeks 3–8 weeks in humans

developing organism between the embryo stage and birth or gestational weeks 8–40 weeks in humans

chemical agent that can harm the zygote, embryo, or fetus

fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS)

condition resulting from alcohol consumption by the mother during pregnancy that produces abnormalities in her child

incorporation of new learning into an existing schema without the need to revise the schema

incorporation of new learning into an existing schema that requires revision of the schema

ability to form mental representations of items that are no longer present

understanding that changing the form or appearance of an object does not change its quantity

limitations on the ability to understand the point of view of other people

understanding that others have thoughts that are different from one's own

emotional bond linking an infant to a parent or caregiver

pattern of infant–caregiver bonding; children explore confidently and return to the caregiver for reassurance

pattern of infant–caregiver bonding; generally characterized as less desirable for the child's outcomes