Which of the following qualitative methods focuses on description and interpretation of cultural behavior?

Latest Qualitative Research Designs MCQ Objective Questions

Qualitative Research Designs MCQ Question 1:

The study of people using participant observation and face to face interviewing is called-

1. Phenomenology
2. Social mapping
3. Ethnography
4. Epidemiology

Answer (Detailed Solution Below)

Option 3 : Ethnography

The correct answer is Ethnography.

• Ethnography is the systematic study of individual cbehaviorultures and is a part of anthropology.
• Ethnography investigates cultural phenomena from the perspective of the research subject.
• Gerhard Friedrich Müller developed the concept of ethnography as a separate discipline whilst participating in the Second Kamchatka Expedition (1733–43) as a professor of history and geography.
• Ethnography is a sort of social research that entails observing and interpreting the behavior of participants in a given social environment, as well as the group members' interpretations of that behavior. Hence option 3) is correct.
• Ethnography as a method of inquiry relies heavily on participant observation, which entails the researcher being present in the setting or with the people being studied.
•  At least in a minor role, and attempting to document in detail patterns of social interaction and participant perspectives, as well as to comprehend these in their local contexts.
• It began in social and cultural anthropology in the early twentieth century, but tended throughout the century to other social science disciplines, particularly sociology.

Qualitative Research Designs MCQ Question 2:

Which from the following are parts of the purpose of quantitative research?

A. Understanding of cultural traditions

B. Discovery of relationships among variables

C. Interpretation of human relationships

D. Confirmation of hypotheses

E. Generalization of results to other situations

1. A, C and D
2. A, B and E
3. B, C and D
4. B, D and E

Answer (Detailed Solution Below)

Option 4 : B, D and E

Quantitative research is the process of collecting and analyzing numerical data. It can be used to find patterns and averages, make predictions, test causal relationships, and generalize results to wider populations.

•  The purpose of quantitative research is to attain greater knowledge and understanding of the social world.
• Researchers use quantitative methods to observe situations or events that affect people.
• Quantitative research produces objective data that can be clearly communicated through statistics and numbers.
• Quantitative research is structured around the scientific method.
• After observing the situation to be investigated, the researcher forms a hypothesis and then uses deductive reasoning by predicting how the data should look if the hypothesis is true, after collecting the data and analyzing it to confirm or reject the hypothesis.

Thus the purpose of the qualitative research is to discover the relation between variables ,confirm th3 hypothesis and generalize the result. 

Qualitative Research Designs MCQ Question 3:

Identify the qualitative research designs from the list given below:
i) Exploring common experiences of individuals to develop a theory
ii) Controlling. manipulating. observing and measuring the effect
iii) Exploring the shared culture of a group of people
iv) Exploring individual stories to describe the lives of people
v) Extending generalizations from sample to population
Select the correct answer from the following options:

1.  i), iii) and iv)
2.  i), ii) and iii)
3.  ii), iii) and v)
4.  ii). iv) and v)

Answer (Detailed Solution Below)

Option 1 :  i), iii) and iv)

Qualitative research

• It is grounded in the assumption that individuals construct social reality in the form of meanings and interpretations, and that these constructions tend to be transitory and situational.
• Qualitative research typically involves qualitative data, i.e., data obtained through methods such as interviews, on-site observations, and focus groups that are in narrative rather than numerical form. Such data are analyzed by looking for themes and patterns.
• It involves reading, re-reading, and exploring the data.
• Qualitative research is defined as a market research method that focuses on obtaining data through open-ended and conversational communication. This method is not only about “what” people think but also “why” they think so. 

Qualitative Research Designs:

• Qualitative research methods are designed in a manner that helps reveal the behaviour and perception of a target audience with reference to a particular topic. 
• The results of qualitative methods are more descriptive and the inferences can be drawn quite easily from the data that is obtained.
• There are different types of qualitative research methods like an in-depth interview, focus groups, ethnographic research, content analysis, case study research that are usually used.
• Qualitative research designs aim at exploring experiences, culture, stories, ideologies, etc. to understand social and behavioural sciences. 
• Qualitative research focuses on understanding a research query as a humanistic or idealistic approach.

Thus, option 1 is the correct answer.

Features of Qualitative research

• Mainly for exploratory purposes and to generate hypotheses.
• The usual purpose is to generate a range and variety of data. 
• The methods of inquiry are informal and flexible.
• The researcher usually starts with only a broad indication of the information objectives of the project, but with a clear understanding of the overall purpose of the research. 
• The researcher usually works from a list of the topics to be covered, but the course of each ‘interview’ will be influenced by the respondent.
• Probability sample techniques are used in data collection.
• Data gathering to take place with top-down systematic evidence.
• Data collection with bottom-up empirical evidence is considered critical in this research. The aim of bottom-up studies, in contrast, is rather to give an accurate empirical description and explanation of the interactions and problem-solving strategies of actors involved in policy delivery. Many of the bottom-up studies do not go beyond providing descriptive accounts of a large amount of discretion available to implementers. 
• Based on small numbers of respondents who take part individually or in small groups.
• It cannot be known how true the findings are of the population from which the respondents are drawn.
• Data collection is usually handled by research professionals. 
• Use of standardized research tools.
• A qualitative project cannot be repeated exactly, because every data collection event in a project is different. 
• The findings can rarely be expressed in statistical form Analysis and conclusion rely heavily on the researcher’s perceptions and interpretation skills

Qualitative Research Designs MCQ Question 4:

Identify the sequence in generating a grounded theory

a) Coding and memoing

b) Deciding about the needed sampling design and data collection

c) Identification of the core variable leading to its saturation

d) Categorization and comparison

e) Theory verification and generalization emerging

Choose the correct answer from the options given below:

1. a, b, d, c, e
2. c, a, d, b, e
3. d, a, c, b, e
4. b, a, d, c, e

Answer (Detailed Solution Below)

Option 4 : b, a, d, c, e

Grounded theory

• It was introduced by Glaser & Strauss in 1967 to legitimize qualitative research.
• Grounded theory is a systematic methodology that has been largely, but not exclusively, applied to qualitative research conducted by social scientists.
• The methodology involves the construction of hypotheses and theories through the collecting and analysis of data.
• The grounded theory involves the collection and analysis of data.
• The theory is “grounded” in actual data, which means the analysis and development of theories happen after you have collected the data. 
• The grounded theory refers to a set of systematic inductive methods for conducting qualitative research aimed toward theory development.
• the grounded theory represents the integration of a quantitative and qualitative perspective in thinking and action processes.
• The primary purpose of this design strategy is to evolve or “ground” a theory in the context in which the phenomenon under study occurs.

Therefore, the sequence in generating a grounded theory:-

1. Deciding about the needed sampling design and data collection
2. Coding and memoing
3. Categorization and comparison
4.  Identification of the core variable leading to its saturation
5. Theory verification and generalization emerging

Qualitative Research Designs MCQ Question 5:

Which method of the qualitative research focuses on language and meanings that are given to texts, for the purpose of creating and shaping knowledge and behaviour?

1. Discourse analysis
2. Narrative research
3. Trend analysis
4. Grounded theory

Answer (Detailed Solution Below)

Option 1 : Discourse analysis

Qualitative research

• It focuses on the study of complex human and social problems in totality, unlike the scientific methods of concentrating on the study of fragmented variables or situations or events.
• It places the main emphasis on the researcher who narrates and interprets phenomena in terms of meanings derived from people's experiences, events, etc. Hence, the human and subjective approach is highlighted.
• The studies are conducted in a natural setting i.e., to observe the events without making any manipulations or controls on variables studied.
• It involves a variety of data gathering techniques and approaches of qualitative nature viz., case study, interviews, dialogues, observations, personal experience, life story, visual data like photography, etc. These data are gathered from a variety of Qualitative Research sources.

Discourse analysis:

• It is an umbrella term for a number of qualitative research approaches that examine the use of language (oral and written texts) in social contexts in helping researchers find answers to their research questions or problems.
• It focuses on language and meanings that are given to texts, for the purpose of creating and shaping knowledge and behavior.
• It is used in various social science disciplines including sociology, anthropology, social work, social and cognitive psychology, communication studies, socio-legal studies, education, management, and organization studies, each of which is subject to its own assumptions, dimensions of analysis, and methodologies. In discourse analysis, the objects of analysis are varied and may include coherent sequences of sentences, propositions, speech acts, turns, and gaps.
• Various types of discourse used in various disciplines including those used in politics, the media, education, science, medicine, law, business, etc
• There are some approaches to discourse analysis, such as Speech Act Theory, Interactional Sociolinguistics, Ethnography of Communication, Pragmatics, Conversational Analysis, Variation Analysis, etc.

Devices for Discourse Analysis:

• Cohesion: Cohesion refers to the ties and connections which exist within texts that link different parts of sentences or larger unit of discourse.
• Coherence: The language users try to come to an interpretation in the scenario of knowledge of the world they possess.
• Parallelism: Parallelism means side by side. In some pieces of literature, some comparisons or contrasts go side by side with each other. They also help to interpreter the whole text.
• Speech Events: Speech events are mainly concerned with what people say in different environment e.g. Debate, interview, discussions, quiz etc are different Speech Events
• Background Knowledge: Background knowledge can be very much helpful in interpreting any text.

Narrative research:

• It can be defined as collecting and analyzing the accounts people tell to describe experiences and offer an interpretation. 
• This approach has been used in many disciplines to learn more about the culture, historical experiences, identity, and lifestyle, etc.

Trend analysis:

• A relationship between two quantitative entities is established using trend analysis.
• The future of this relationship is set on the basis of the trend in the past and thus known as trend analysis.
• Trend analysis is based on the idea that what has happened in the past gives traders an idea of what will happen in the future. There are three main types of trends: short-, intermediate- and long-term.

Grounded theory: 

• It involves the collection and analysis of data.
• The analysis and development of theories happen after you have collected the data.
• It was introduced by Glaser & Strauss in 1967 to legitimize qualitative research

​Hence, Discourse analysis focuses on language and meanings that are given to texts, for the purpose of creating and shaping knowledge and behaviour.

Which of the following represents the distinctive feature of qualitative research?

1. Perspective based, inductive and meaning giving
2. Hypothesis based, deductive and testing
3. Deductive cum inductive based approach and generalization
4. Deductive inquiry with focus and hypotheses being tested

Answer (Detailed Solution Below)

Option 1 : Perspective based, inductive and meaning giving

Research is a systematic inquiry towards understanding a complex social phenomenon or a process. Based on the research problem, the selection of research methods by the researcher may vary. There are two types of research on the basis of a process i.e Quantitative research and Qualitative research.

Qualitative research:

• The objective is to explore a phenomenon to gain understanding by diving deeper into the problem.
• The quality of data rather than quantity is given importance.
• Used qualitative methods of data collection such as interviews, focus groups, observation, etc. 
• It is spiral in nature.
• The researcher starts with observation and ends with a theoretical position based on the facts, data, and his/her perception.
• It moves from specific to theory. Therefore, it is inductive in nature.
• A subject is studied in depth.
• The conclusions are descriptive rather than predictive.
• Believes in the interpretivism paradigm and disregards the positivist assumptions and statistical data analysis.
• The behavioral aspect of people is studied. (thoughts, beliefs, attitude, values, etc)

Identify the qualitative research designs from the list given below:
i) Exploring common experiences of individuals to develop a theory
ii) Controlling. manipulating. observing and measuring the effect
iii) Exploring the shared culture of a group of people
iv) Exploring individual stories to describe the lives of people
v) Extending generalizations from sample to population
Select the correct answer from the following options:

1.  i), iii) and iv)
2.  i), ii) and iii)
3.  ii), iii) and v)
4.  ii). iv) and v)

Answer (Detailed Solution Below)

Option 1 :  i), iii) and iv)

Qualitative research

• It is grounded in the assumption that individuals construct social reality in the form of meanings and interpretations, and that these constructions tend to be transitory and situational.
• Qualitative research typically involves qualitative data, i.e., data obtained through methods such as interviews, on-site observations, and focus groups that are in narrative rather than numerical form. Such data are analyzed by looking for themes and patterns.
• It involves reading, re-reading, and exploring the data.
• Qualitative research is defined as a market research method that focuses on obtaining data through open-ended and conversational communication. This method is not only about “what” people think but also “why” they think so. 

Qualitative Research Designs:

• Qualitative research methods are designed in a manner that helps reveal the behaviour and perception of a target audience with reference to a particular topic. 
• The results of qualitative methods are more descriptive and the inferences can be drawn quite easily from the data that is obtained.
• There are different types of qualitative research methods like an in-depth interview, focus groups, ethnographic research, content analysis, case study research that are usually used.
• Qualitative research designs aim at exploring experiences, culture, stories, ideologies, etc. to understand social and behavioural sciences. 
• Qualitative research focuses on understanding a research query as a humanistic or idealistic approach.

Thus, option 1 is the correct answer.

Features of Qualitative research

• Mainly for exploratory purposes and to generate hypotheses.
• The usual purpose is to generate a range and variety of data. 
• The methods of inquiry are informal and flexible.
• The researcher usually starts with only a broad indication of the information objectives of the project, but with a clear understanding of the overall purpose of the research. 
• The researcher usually works from a list of the topics to be covered, but the course of each ‘interview’ will be influenced by the respondent.
• Probability sample techniques are used in data collection.
• Data gathering to take place with top-down systematic evidence.
• Data collection with bottom-up empirical evidence is considered critical in this research. The aim of bottom-up studies, in contrast, is rather to give an accurate empirical description and explanation of the interactions and problem-solving strategies of actors involved in policy delivery. Many of the bottom-up studies do not go beyond providing descriptive accounts of a large amount of discretion available to implementers. 
• Based on small numbers of respondents who take part individually or in small groups.
• It cannot be known how true the findings are of the population from which the respondents are drawn.
• Data collection is usually handled by research professionals. 
• Use of standardized research tools.
• A qualitative project cannot be repeated exactly, because every data collection event in a project is different. 
• The findings can rarely be expressed in statistical form Analysis and conclusion rely heavily on the researcher’s perceptions and interpretation skills

Which method of the qualitative research focuses on language and meanings that are given to texts, for the purpose of creating and shaping knowledge and behaviour?

1. Discourse analysis
2. Narrative research
3. Trend analysis
4. Grounded theory

Answer (Detailed Solution Below)

Option 1 : Discourse analysis

Qualitative research

• It focuses on the study of complex human and social problems in totality, unlike the scientific methods of concentrating on the study of fragmented variables or situations or events.
• It places the main emphasis on the researcher who narrates and interprets phenomena in terms of meanings derived from people's experiences, events, etc. Hence, the human and subjective approach is highlighted.
• The studies are conducted in a natural setting i.e., to observe the events without making any manipulations or controls on variables studied.
• It involves a variety of data gathering techniques and approaches of qualitative nature viz., case study, interviews, dialogues, observations, personal experience, life story, visual data like photography, etc. These data are gathered from a variety of Qualitative Research sources.

Discourse analysis:

• It is an umbrella term for a number of qualitative research approaches that examine the use of language (oral and written texts) in social contexts in helping researchers find answers to their research questions or problems.
• It focuses on language and meanings that are given to texts, for the purpose of creating and shaping knowledge and behavior.
• It is used in various social science disciplines including sociology, anthropology, social work, social and cognitive psychology, communication studies, socio-legal studies, education, management, and organization studies, each of which is subject to its own assumptions, dimensions of analysis, and methodologies. In discourse analysis, the objects of analysis are varied and may include coherent sequences of sentences, propositions, speech acts, turns, and gaps.
• Various types of discourse used in various disciplines including those used in politics, the media, education, science, medicine, law, business, etc
• There are some approaches to discourse analysis, such as Speech Act Theory, Interactional Sociolinguistics, Ethnography of Communication, Pragmatics, Conversational Analysis, Variation Analysis, etc.

Devices for Discourse Analysis:

• Cohesion: Cohesion refers to the ties and connections which exist within texts that link different parts of sentences or larger unit of discourse.
• Coherence: The language users try to come to an interpretation in the scenario of knowledge of the world they possess.
• Parallelism: Parallelism means side by side. In some pieces of literature, some comparisons or contrasts go side by side with each other. They also help to interpreter the whole text.
• Speech Events: Speech events are mainly concerned with what people say in different environment e.g. Debate, interview, discussions, quiz etc are different Speech Events
• Background Knowledge: Background knowledge can be very much helpful in interpreting any text.

Narrative research:

• It can be defined as collecting and analyzing the accounts people tell to describe experiences and offer an interpretation. 
• This approach has been used in many disciplines to learn more about the culture, historical experiences, identity, and lifestyle, etc.

Trend analysis:

• A relationship between two quantitative entities is established using trend analysis.
• The future of this relationship is set on the basis of the trend in the past and thus known as trend analysis.
• Trend analysis is based on the idea that what has happened in the past gives traders an idea of what will happen in the future. There are three main types of trends: short-, intermediate- and long-term.

Grounded theory: 

• It involves the collection and analysis of data.
• The analysis and development of theories happen after you have collected the data.
• It was introduced by Glaser & Strauss in 1967 to legitimize qualitative research

​Hence, Discourse analysis focuses on language and meanings that are given to texts, for the purpose of creating and shaping knowledge and behaviour.

Which of the following research designs is the most appropriate for depicting lived experiential realities?

1. Phenomenological designs
2. Case study designs
3. Grounded theory designs
4. Narrative research designs

Answer (Detailed Solution Below)

Option 1 : Phenomenological designs

Qualitative research is an inquiry process of understanding based on distinct methodological traditions of inquiry that explore a social or human problem.

• The researcher builds a complex holistic picture, analyses words, reports detailed views of informants and conducts the study in a natural setting. It is a multi-method focus, involving an interpretive, naturalistic approach to its subject matter.
• It also involves the studied use and collection of a variety of empirical materials - case study, personal experience, introspection, life story, interview, observational, historical, interactional, and visual texts-that describe routine and problematic and meaning in individuals' lives. 

Types of Qualitative Research design 

Many varieties of traditions of qualitative studies exist in social sciences. They have been categorized by Creswell(1998) in the context of their forms, terminologies, and focus as under:  

Narrative research designs

• It is known as Biographical study which involves the study of an individual and his or her experiences as narrated to the researcher or found in different sources. You can come across biographical writings in different fields like literature, history, anthropology, sociology, education, psychology, etc. Biographies are presented with different perspectives like literary, historical, anthropological, sociological, educational, psychological as well as of interdisciplinary nature.
• The focus of the biography remains on telling and inscribing the stories of others. It explores the history of life e.g. accounts of major achievements of life. There are different connotations linked with biographical study viz., individual biographies, autobiography, life history, oral history. In all these cases the researchers must take care of objectivity in expression with little research interpretation. It must be written in a scholarly way with a strong historical background of the subject and chronological organization. 

Phenomenological Study 

• Phenomenological study's focus remains on describing the meaning of lived experiences for several individuals about a concept or the phenomenon. It is said that through a phenomenological approach the researcher explores the structures of consciousness in human experiences. Here experiences contain both the outward appearance and inward consciousness based on memory image and meaning. 

Grounded Theory Study

• This kind of study aims at discovering or generating a theory. Here theory means an abstract analytical scheme of the phenomenon. In other words, a theory is understood as a plausible relationship, as any concept or set of concepts. In this case, the theory is discovered in the context of a particular situation. This situation is one in which individuals interact, take actions, or engage in a process in response to a phenomenon.
• The researcher intends to explore how people act and react to a phenomenon. The process involved in data collection can be through continuous visits to the field, interviews with participants, in-depth observations of activities, etc. Through the grounded theory method, a theory is generated in the context of a phenomenon being studied. 

Ethnography

• Ethnography can be understood as a description and interpretation of a cultural or social group or system. Here the focus of the study remains on examining the patterns of behavior of a group, its customs, and ways of life. This method involves prolonged observation of events where the researcher becomes a part and parcel of the day-to-day lives of the people.
• One to one interviews with the members of the group corroborated with participant observation can form the base of such a method. The researcher makes use of ethnography to study the meanings of behavior, language, and interactions of the culture sharing group.

Case Study

• Case study as a method of research focuses on the in-depth study of a unit or case in totality. The case may be an individual, program, an event, an institution, an activity, etc.
• The case study method was originally used in medicine to examine the patient's previous development, his health and physical state from the beginning, and many other factors in the past, besides making a careful study of the patient's present condition and symptoms.

Hence, from the above-discussed points, we can conclude that phenomenological design is the most appropriate for depicting lived experiential realities.

In ethnographic research, a researcher uses a non-interactive strategy, which describes people's experiences and connotes their feelings. Which of the following strategies does it refer to?

1. Field notes
2. Inductive analysis
3. Artifact collection
4. Discovery analysis

Answer (Detailed Solution Below)

Option 3 : Artifact collection

Ethnographic research:

• Etymologically, the word “ethnography” originated from two Greek words ethnos (people) and graphia (writing). Therefore Ethnography accounts for the written presentation of a people or a population.
• Ethnography has its origins in the discipline of anthropology.
• Ethnography means a systematic detailed study about a particular culture or society, primarily based on fieldwork.
• Ethnographic research is conducted in the natural setting by covering the everyday activities of the subjects under qualitative investigation.
• It also attempts to describe and interpret the symbolic and contextual meanings of the practices that are conducted in the natural setting in every usual day. 
• ​Artifacts in research refers to the systematic biases, uncontrolled and unintentional, that can threaten the INTERNAL or EXTERNAL VALIDITY of one's research conclusions.

Hence, In ethnographic research, a researcher uses a non-interactive strategy, which describes people's experiences and connotes their feelings. it refers to artifact collection.

What is the distinctive feature of case study research?

1. Arriving at generalizations
2. Presenting a detailed case history
3. Developing an in-depth understanding of the case
4. Helping solve the problem of the case

Answer (Detailed Solution Below)

Option 3 : Developing an in-depth understanding of the case

Research is a systematic way of investigation, a process of discovering new knowledge. Research is also considered as searching for and gathering information, usually to answer a particular question. Each research study has its own specific purpose

Case study method

• A case study is a deep, detailed, and intensive study of a social unit;
• It is a method of qualitative research;
• It preserves wholeness of the units i.e. it is an approach that views any social unit as a whole.
• It helps to collect detailed information about the unit of study and gives clues to new ideas and further research.
• As a tool of analysis, it helps to ascertain a number and variety of traits, qualities, and habits confined to a particular instance.
• The Case Study method shows the way to deepen our perception and sharpen insights to understand biographies.

​Hence, Developing an in-depth understanding of the case is the distinctive feature of case study research.

Which from the following are parts of the purpose of quantitative research?

A. Understanding of cultural traditions

B. Discovery of relationships among variables

C. Interpretation of human relationships

D. Confirmation of hypotheses

E. Generalization of results to other situations

1. A, C and D
2. A, B and E
3. B, C and D
4. B, D and E

Answer (Detailed Solution Below)

Option 4 : B, D and E

Quantitative research is the process of collecting and analyzing numerical data. It can be used to find patterns and averages, make predictions, test causal relationships, and generalize results to wider populations.

•  The purpose of quantitative research is to attain greater knowledge and understanding of the social world.
• Researchers use quantitative methods to observe situations or events that affect people.
• Quantitative research produces objective data that can be clearly communicated through statistics and numbers.
• Quantitative research is structured around the scientific method.
• After observing the situation to be investigated, the researcher forms a hypothesis and then uses deductive reasoning by predicting how the data should look if the hypothesis is true, after collecting the data and analyzing it to confirm or reject the hypothesis.

Thus the purpose of the qualitative research is to discover the relation between variables ,confirm th3 hypothesis and generalize the result. 

In educational research, case study method gives importance to :

1. Prediction
2. Causal connections
3. Generalization
4. Unique characteristics

Answer (Detailed Solution Below)

Option 4 : Unique characteristics

Qualitative research

• Qualitative research is that research where number counting and statistical techniques are not the central issues, where an attempt is made to get close to the collection of data in its natural setting. 
• Qualitative research is based on the disciplines of social sciences like psychology, sociology, and anthropology. Therefore, the qualitative research methods allow for in-depth and further probing and questioning of respondents based on their responses, where the interviewer/researcher also tries to understand their motivation and feelings. Understanding how your audience takes decisions can help derive conclusions in market research.
• Qualitative research is concerned with developing explanations of social phenomena. It aims to help us to understand the world in which we live and why things are the way they are. 
• It is concerned with the social aspects of our world and seeks to answer questions about: Why people behave the way they do
• This method is about “what” and “why” aspect of the study. For example, A teacher is looking into the academics achievement of students. Qualitative Research is about why students scoring well. A teacher may conduct an interview to find out the reasons.

Methods for collection in Qualitative Research are:

• Focus group
• Direct observation
• In-depth interview
• Diary method
• Roleplay & simulation
• Case study

Case studies are qualitative Research

• A case study is a deep, detailed, and intensive study of a social unit;
• It preserves the wholeness of the units i.e. it is an approach that views any social unit as a whole.
• It helps to collect detailed information about the unit of study and gives clues to new ideas and further research.
• As a tool of analysis, it helps to ascertain a number and variety of traits, qualities, and habits confined to a particular instance.
• The Case Study method shows the way to deepen our perception and sharpen insights to understand biographies.
• It gives importance to unique characteristics
• It focused on providing a detailed account of one or more cases.
• E.g. A case study on the impact of Lockdown on the adolescent student.

Hence, In educational research, case study method gives importance to unique characteristics.

“While assessing the attitude of administrators towards a ‘women empowerment programme’, a researcher had no preconceived notions about what she might discover, and she continued interviewing until key themes emerge”. Indicate the paradigm of research being followed :

1. Ethnographic study approach
2. Grounded theory approach
3. Phenomenological study approach
4. Case study approach

Answer (Detailed Solution Below)

Option 2 : Grounded theory approach

Ethnographic Study Approach:

• Ethnographic studies focus on large cultural groups of people who interact over time. 
• Ethnography is a set of qualitative methods that are used in social sciences that focus on the observation of social practices and interactions.
• It provides an insider's picture of a community under study.
• The researcher can go and live in a specific community where the research is going to conduct and study the culture and their educational practices.

Grounded theory approach:

• Grounded theory is introduced as an inductive, comparative methodology that provides systematic guidelines for gathering, synthesizing, analyzing, and conceptualizing qualitative data for the purpose of theory construction.
• It sets out to discover or construct theory from data, systematically obtained, and analyzed using comparative analysis.
• It is used to uncover such things as social relationships and behaviors of groups, known as social processes.
• It involves line by line coding where concepts and key phrases are identified and highlighted and moved into subcategories, then categories. This breaks the data down into conceptual components and the researcher can start to theorize or reflect on what they are reading and understanding—making sense of the data.
• The data from each participant will be ‘constantly compared’ for similarities. Hence, generalizations follow rather than precede the observations in due course.​

Phenomenological study approach:

• It aims to describe and explore experiences, which can only be done by collecting data from individuals who have lived through those experiences.
• Hence phenomenologists often refer to the “lived experience” and data is often limited to interviews, while findings are reported as a rich description of the experience drawing on characteristics identified during data analysis.

Case study approach:

• A case study is a research approach that is used to generate an in-depth, multi-faceted understanding of a complex issue in its real-life context.
• It is an established research design that is used extensively in a wide variety of disciplines, particularly in the social sciences.

Conclusion: since, in the above question the researcher is using a systematic guideline for gathering, synthesizing, and analyzing data to construct a theory without any preconceived notion. So she will use the grounded theory approach for her research work. 

An investigator conducted a study to examine the effect of gender on attitude towards dowry system. The nature of this study was

1. Descriptive
2. Correlational
3. Causal comparative
4. Experimental

Answer (Detailed Solution Below)

Option 3 : Causal comparative

Causal comparative:

• Causal-comparative research seeks to find relationships between independent and dependent variables after an action or event has already occurred.
• The researcher's goal is to determine whether the independent variable affected the outcome, or dependent variable, by comparing two or more groups of individuals.
• In the given example, Causal-comparative research is used to identify cause-effect relationships or to examine the consequences of differences that already exist between two groups.
• Causal-comparative research is also sometimes referred to as "ex-post-facto" research because the researcher is attempting to determine the cause or reason for differences that already exist among groups of individuals.

Descriptive:

• Descriptive research is carried out to provide information about a person, thing, or process.
• It describes the characteristics of an individual, group, organization, or phenomena, conditions, or situation.
• The characteristics are described in terms of the dependent variables.
• The description may be limited to events of past or present but not of the future. In that case, it becomes experimental research. Most of the research in social sciences is descriptive in nature.

Correlational research

• It provides some indication as to how two or more things are related to one another or, in effect what they share or have in common or how well a specific outcome might be predicted by one or more pieces of information.
• Correlational research uses a numerical index called the correlation coefficient as a measure of the strength of this relationship.
• For example, if you are interested to find out the relationship between the number of hours spent studying and their achievement, then you would be doing correlational research because you are interested in the relationship between these two variables. 

Experimental research

• It is mainly used in science subjects such as physics, chemistry, medicine, biology, etc.
• The experiment requires two variables, one independent variable, and the other dependent variable.
• It is important that in experimental research the independent variable is manipulated and the effect of manipulation is observed on the dependent variable.

An investigator wants to study the functioning of a school meant for tribal children. The most appropriate research design for this context would be classified as:

1. Narrative Research
2. Phenomenology
3. Grounded Theory
4. Ethnography

Answer (Detailed Solution Below)

Option 4 : Ethnography

Research design is an activity and time-based plan keeping in view of the research objectives. It guides the types of information to be collected and their sources. It is a framework for specifying the relationship between the variables under study. It outlines the procedures. 

Ethnography:

• It is qualitative research.
• The process to study and describe a culture (shared attitudes, values, norms, the language of a group of people) in detail.
• Data is collected through observation or the researcher may go and live in that specific community where the research is going to conduct and study the culture and their educational practices.
• It provides an insider's picture of a community under study.
• The researcher participates in people’s daily lives for an extended period, watching what happens, listening to what is said, and asking questions to throw light on the issues with which he or she is concerned.

Grounded theory

• It is one of the basic approaches and most prominently used techniques in qualitative research.
• It refers to ‘the process of generation of a theory which is based on the collection of data from multiple sources’. 
• It is the only method of qualitative research that uses quantitative data also when required.
• The researcher aims to collect data and interpret the data from the textual base (for example, a collection of field notes or video recordings). After the process of interpreting, the database is categorized into different variables and then the interrelationship between these variables is analyzed and studied.

Phenomenology

• Phenomenology is concerned with the study of experience from the perspective of the individual, ‘bracketing’ taken-for-granted assumptions, and usual ways of perceiving. 
• It is a form of qualitative research in which the researcher attempts to understand how one or more individuals experience a phenomenon. For example, interviewing the wives of 10 prisoners of war and asking them to describe their experiences.
• phenomenological approaches are based in a paradigm of personal knowledge and subjectivity and emphasize the importance of personal perspective and interpretation. 
• Pure phenomenological research seeks essentially to describe rather than explain, and to start from a perspective free from hypotheses or preconceptions.

Narrative research

• Narrative research aims to explore and conceptualize human experience as it is represented in textual form.
• Aiming for an in-depth exploration of the meanings people assign to their experiences, narrative researchers work with small samples of participants to obtain rich and free-ranging discourse.
• The emphasis is on storied experience. Generally, this takes the form of interviewing people around the topic of interest, but it might also involve the analysis of written documents.
• Narrative research as a mode of inquiry is used by researchers from a wide variety of disciplines, which include anthropology, communication studies, cultural studies, economics, education, history, linguistics, medicine, nursing, psychology, social work, and sociology. 

​Hence, the most appropriate research design to study the functioning of a school meant for tribal children is Ethnography because it explains the community and also collects data by participating in people's daily lives.

The research design involves the following consideration:

• Objectives of the research study
• Selection of the method of data collection
• Source of information—sample design
• Tools for data collection
• Data analysis—qualitative and quantitative

Research design achieves the following purposes:

• It makes research efficient
• Optimum utilization of resources—maximum information with minimal expenditure, time and money
• Flexibility
• Minimization of bias
• Reliability and objectivity

Identify the sequence in generating a grounded theory

a) Coding and memoing

b) Deciding about the needed sampling design and data collection

c) Identification of the core variable leading to its saturation

d) Categorization and comparison

e) Theory verification and generalization emerging

Choose the correct answer from the options given below:

1. a, b, d, c, e
2. c, a, d, b, e
3. d, a, c, b, e
4. b, a, d, c, e

Answer (Detailed Solution Below)

Option 4 : b, a, d, c, e

Grounded theory

• It was introduced by Glaser & Strauss in 1967 to legitimize qualitative research.
• Grounded theory is a systematic methodology that has been largely, but not exclusively, applied to qualitative research conducted by social scientists.
• The methodology involves the construction of hypotheses and theories through the collecting and analysis of data.
• The grounded theory involves the collection and analysis of data.
• The theory is “grounded” in actual data, which means the analysis and development of theories happen after you have collected the data. 
• The grounded theory refers to a set of systematic inductive methods for conducting qualitative research aimed toward theory development.
• the grounded theory represents the integration of a quantitative and qualitative perspective in thinking and action processes.
• The primary purpose of this design strategy is to evolve or “ground” a theory in the context in which the phenomenon under study occurs.

Therefore, the sequence in generating a grounded theory:-

1. Deciding about the needed sampling design and data collection
2. Coding and memoing
3. Categorization and comparison
4.  Identification of the core variable leading to its saturation
5. Theory verification and generalization emerging

Which of the following research designs uitilizes data from individuals, autobiographies and personal talks/discussions?

1. Grounded theory design
2. Narrative research design
3. Case study design
4. Ethnographic design

Answer (Detailed Solution Below)

Option 2 : Narrative research design

Qualitative research is an inquiry process of understanding based on distinct methodological traditions of inquiry that explore a social or human problem.

• The researcher builds a complex holistic picture, analyses words, reports detailed views of informants and conducts the study in a natural setting. It is a multi-method focus, involving an interpretive, naturalistic approach to its subject matter.
• It also involves the studied use and collection of a variety of empirical materials - case study, personal experience, introspection, life story, interview, observational, historical, interactional, and visual texts-that describe routine and problematic and meaning in individuals' lives. 

Types of Qualitative Research design 

Many varieties of traditions of qualitative studies exist in social sciences. They have been categorized by Creswell(1998) in the context of their forms, terminologies, and focus as under: 

 ​​Hence, Narrative research designs utilize data from individuals, autobiographies and personal talks/discussions.

Which of the following statements is not related to Ex Post Facto research ?

1. Random assignment of subjects to the treatment group is not possible
2. Dependent variable is measured first and independent variables are studied after that
3. Provide support to any number of different and sometimes contradictory hypotheses
4. It is possible to exercise much rigorous control in the study

Answer (Detailed Solution Below)

Option 4 : It is possible to exercise much rigorous control in the study

Ex post facto study or after-the-fact research is a category of research design in which the investigation starts after the fact has occurred without interference from the researcher. For example, if there has been an economical recession in a country and the researcher tries to analyze the ‘cause’ or reason behind such a recession (which is the ‘effect’).

• An ex post facto research design is a method in which groups with qualities that already exist are compared on some dependent variable. Also known as "after the fact" research, an ex post facto design is considered quasi-experimental because the subjects are not randomly assigned - they are grouped based on a particular characteristic or trait.

• Although differing groups are analyzed and compared in regards to independent and dependent variables it is not a true experiment because it lacks random assignment.
• Ex-post-facto research can be defined as an empirically based investigation that does not involve the researchers’ direct control over the independent variables because they have already led to effects that can no Ex-Post Facto Research more be manipulated.
• The assignment of subjects to different groups is based on whichever variable is of interest to the researchers.
• On basis of the occurring events, there can be two designs or forms of research and these are Prospective research design and Retrospective research design.
• When the researcher tries to find out the future or potential results that is, the effect after treating the independent variable or the cause, then the researcher is actually trying to examine the prospective or the future results.
• The Retrospective research design on the other hand is one in which the researcher tries to trace the history in order to find out the basic reason behind an event.

Characteristics of ex post facto design

1. The research has control or a comparison group

As the research is done on basis of the study of the cause which has already led to its effects, it becomes necessary for the researcher to keep a control group, which can be used for comparison with the actual experimental group later on, in order to analyze the cause of an already occurred event.

1. The behavior, action, event or the treatment or the independent variable of the research cannot be manipulated or changed
2. The research focuses on the effects

. Only after having a detailed study of the phenomena or the event, the researcher tries to determine the causes behind such an event or phenomena.

1. The research tries to analyze the ‘how’ and ‘what’ aspect of an event

Since the researcher tries to understand the causal effects behind phenomena, the research basically focuses on how and what reasons have led that phenomena to occur.

1. Explores possible effects and causes

With the help of ex-post-facto research, the researcher tries to analyze the cause and effect phenomena of an event, action, or behavior.

Conclusion: In Ex Post Facto research subjects are not randomly assigned, the dependent variable is measured first and any number of hypotheses can be supported. It also requires a control group but rigorous control is not possible. Hence, option (4) is correct.

Which of the following research types is most useful for the government in planning policies ?

1. Correlational studies
2. Descriptive studies
3. Experimental studies
4. Historical studies

Answer (Detailed Solution Below)

Option 2 : Descriptive studies

Correlational Studies:-

• A correlational study is a type of research design where a researcher seeks to understand what kind of relationships naturally occurring variables have with one another. In simple terms, correlational research seeks to figure out if two or more variables are related and, if so, in what way.
• Examples of Correlational Studies
  • There are many examples of correlational studies or questions such studies may seek to answer:
  • Someone may want to find out if drinking while pregnant is associated with an increased risk of depression for the teenage child.
  • Is smoking associated with Alzheimer's disease?
  • Are child victims of abuse more likely to become abusers themselves?

Descriptive studies:

• A descriptive study is one that is designed to describe the distribution of one or more variables, without regard to any causal or other hypotheses.
• Descriptive research aims to accurately and systematically describe a population, situation, or phenomenon. It can answer what, where, when, and how questions, but not why questions.
• Depending upon the requirement, It can be extended to as large an area/ population as a whole nation or even the entire world.
• Thus when the universe of study is large and the researchers are looking for broad trends or patterns in a given population they often resort to survey methods. In other words, qualitative and quantitative research methods are not opposed to each other. Rather, they are complementary. 
• For example, sociologists interested in understanding the process of secularization may undertake surveys on how often people perform religious rituals in their everyday social, economic, and political life. 

Experimental studies: 

• An experimental study seeks to determine a relationship between two variables—the dependent variable and the independent variable. After completing an experimental research study, a correlation between a specific aspect of an entity and the variable being studied is either supported or rejected. Experimental research is research conducted with a scientific approach using two sets of variables. The first set acts as a constant, which you use to measure the differences of the second set. 
• An experimental study is a study in which conditions are controlled and manipulated by the experimenter. For example, in a comparative clinical trial, the method of assigning treatments to subjects is determined by the investigator.

Historical study:

• Historical research is a qualitative technique. Historical research studies the meaning of past events in an attempt to interpret the facts and explain the cause of events, and their effect on the present events.
• In doing so, researchers rely heavily on primary historical data (direct accounts of events, archival data - official documents, personal records, and records of eyewitnesses) and less frequently on secondary historical data (information from persons who didn’t witness the event; e.g. textbooks, newspapers, encyclopedias).
• Historical research data is subject to external criticism (verification of genuineness or validity of the source) and internal criticism (exploring the meaning of the source).
• Historical research has time and place dimensions. Simple chronology is not considered historical research because it does not interpret the meaning of events.
• Historical research is used to compare records of historical events and the activities surrounding them. This type of research also helps to organize historical events sequentially and to preserve historical data so it doesn’t get lost.
• One example from the textbook is the documented expedition of Spanish explorer Hernando DeSoto who discovered the Mississippi River. Historical research uncovered this story based on primary historical data – in this case, records from the members of the expedition, as well as documents and letters from the Spanish archives.

Conclusion: Since the planning of policies requires the opinion of people for whom policies need to be formulated. It needs a detailed survey. Hence, here the method used will be a descriptive survey.

Note:

Experimental studies need to be controlled conditions, historical research is the investigation into the past and correlational studies are to find the relationship between two variables. Hence, these three methods will not be used.

What qualitative methods focuses on description and interpretation of cultural behavior?

Which of the following qualitative research inquiry focuses on the description and interpretation of cultural behavior?

What type of qualitative research method would be used to describe and interpret a culture?

Which of the following qualitative research methods would best be described by use of the term lived experience?