The Montreal Protocol, finalized in 1987, is a global agreement to protect the stratospheric ozone layer by phasing out the production and consumption of ozone-depleting substances (ODS). The Montreal Protocol has proven to be innovative and successful, and is the first treaty to achieve universal ratification by all countries in the world. Leveraging this worldwide participation, the Montreal Protocol has spurred global investment in alternative technologies, many developed by U.S. companies, and placed the ozone layer, which was in peril, on a path to repair. The ozone layer filters out harmful ultraviolet radiation, which is associated with an increased prevalence of skin cancer and cataracts, reduced agricultural productivity, and disruption of marine ecosystems. The United States ratified the Montreal Protocol in 1988 and has joined four subsequent amendments. The United States has been a leader within the Protocol throughout its existence, and has taken strong domestic action to phase out the production and consumption of ODS such as chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and halons. With full implementation of the Montreal Protocol, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) estimates that Americans born between 1890 and 2100 are expected to avoid 443 million cases of skin cancer, approximately 2.3 million skin cancer deaths, and more than 63 million cases of cataracts, with even greater benefits worldwide. The Montreal Protocol’s Scientific Assessment Panel estimates that with implementation of the Montreal Protocol we can expect near complete recovery of the ozone layer by the middle of the 21st century. The United States was instrumental in negotiating the Montreal Protocol. In the 1970s, evidence began to surface that CFCs, which were used in everyday household products such as air conditioners and refrigerators, were depleting the Earth’s protective ozone layer and increasing the level of ultraviolet radiation reaching our planet’s surface. The United States, along with allies and stakeholders, advocated for strong controls on the production and consumption of ODS, such as chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) and halons; promoting international cooperation; and building consensus to phase out ODS. The U.S. Senate unanimously approved U.S. ratification of the Montreal Protocol in 1988, and the treaty has continued to receive bipartisan support over the past thirty years. Over its history, the Montreal Protocol has received support from the vast majority of U.S. industry as well as environmental advocates. The full text of the Protocol, information on its institutions and past actions, and related publications are available through the UN Environment Montreal Protocol Ozone Secretariat website. KIGALI AMENDMENT TO THE MONTREAL PROTOCOLOn October 15, 2016, Parties to the Montreal Protocol adopted the Kigali Amendment to phase down production and consumption of hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) worldwide. HFCs are widely used alternatives to ODS such as hydrochlorofluorocarbons (HCFCs) and chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), which are already controlled under the Protocol. This amendment creates market certainty and opens international markets to new technology that is better for the environment, without compromising performance. It calls on all countries to gradually phase down their production and consumption of HFCs in the coming decades using the flexible, innovative, and effective approaches the Montreal Protocol has used for three decades. Global stakeholders endorsed adoption of the Kigali Amendment, including most of the major U.S. companies working in related sectors. ADDITIONAL RESOURCESFurther information on the science of the Stratospheric Ozone Layer can be found on the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) and National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) websites, and information on the U.S. domestic implementation of the Montreal Protocol can be found on the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) website.
Introduced to the Constitutional Convention in 1787, James Madison’s Virginia Plan outlined a strong national government with three branches: legislative, executive, and judicial. The plan called for a legislature divided into two bodies (the Senate and the House of Representatives) with proportional representation. That is, each state’s representation in Congress would be based on its population. The alternative to the Virginia Plan, William Paterson’s New Jersey Plan, intended to give states equal representation in a one-bodied legislature. Adopted on July 16, 1787, the “Connecticut Compromise” utilized both forms of representation, providing proportional representation in the House and equal representation in the Senate. Resolutions submitted to the Constitutional Convention on May 29, 1787. 1. Resolved that the Articles of Confederation ought to be so corrected & enlarged as to accomplish the objects proposed by their institution; namely, "common defence [sic], security of liberty and general welfare." 2. Resolved therefore that the rights of suffrage in the National Legislature ought to be proportioned to the Quotas of contribution, or to the number of free inhabitants, as the one or the other rule may seem best in different cases. 3. Resolved that the National Legislature ought to consist of two branches. 4. Resolved that the members of the first branch of the National Legislature ought to be elected by the people of the several States every _______ for the term of ______ ; to be of the age of _____ years at least, to receive liberal stipends by which they may be compensated for the devotion of their time to public service; to be ineligible to any office established by a particular State, or under the authority of the United States, except those peculiarly belonging to the functions of the first branch, during the term of service, and for the space of _____ after its expiration; to be incapable of reelection for the space of ______ after the expiration of their term of service, and to be subject to recall. 5. Resolved that the members of the second branch of the National Legislature ought to be elected by those of the first, out of a proper number of persons nominated by the individual Legislatures, to be of the age of _____ years at least; to hold their offices for a term sufficient to ensure their independency; to receive liberal stipends, by which they may be compensated for the devotion of their time to public service; and to be ineligible to any office established by a particular State, or under the authority of the United States, except those peculiarly belonging to the functions of the second branch, during the term of service, and for the space of _____ after the expiration thereof. 6. Resolved that each branch ought to possess the right of originating Acts; that the National Legislature ought to be impowered [sic] to enjoy the Legislative Rights vested in Congress by the Confederation & moreover to legislate in all cases to which the separate States are incompetent, or in which the harmony of the United States may be interrupted by the exercise of individual Legislation; to negative all laws passed by the several States, contravening in the opinion of the National Legislature the articles of Union; and to call forth the force of the Union against any member of the Union failing to fulfill its duty under the articles thereof. 7. Resolved that a National Executive be instituted; to be chosen by the National Legislature for the term of ______ years, to receive punctually at stated times, a fixed compensation for the services rendered, in which no increase or diminution shall be made so as to affect the Magistracy, existing at the time of increase or diminution, and to be ineligible a second time; and that besides a general authority to execute the National laws, it ought to enjoy the Executive rights vested in Congress by the Confederation. 8. Resolved that the Executive and a convenient number of the National Judiciary, ought to compose a Council of revision with authority to examine every act of the National Legislature before it shall operate, & every act of a particular Legislature before a Negative thereon shall be final; and that the dissent of the said Council shall amount to a rejection, unless the Act of the National Legislature be again passed, or that of a particular Legislature be again negatived by ______ of the members of each branch. 9. Resolved that a National Judiciary be established to consist of one or more supreme tribunals, and of inferior tribunals to be chosen by the National Legislature, to hold their offices during good behaviour; and to receive punctually at stated times fixed compensation for their services, in which no increase or diminution shall be made so as to affect the persons actually in office at the time of such increase or diminution. that the jurisdiction of the inferior tribunals shall be to hear & determine in the first instance, and of the supreme tribunal to hear and determine in the dernier resort, all piracies & felonies on the high seas, captures from an enemy; cases in which foreigners or citizens of other States applying to such jurisdictions may be interested, or which respect the collection of the National revenue; impeachments of any National officers, and questions which may involve the national peace and harmony. 10. Resolved that provision ought to be made for the admission of States lawfully arising within the limits of the United States, whether from a voluntary junction of Government & Territory on otherwise, with the consent of a number of voices in the National legislature less than the whole. 11. Resolved that a Republican Government & the territory of each State, except in the instance of a voluntary junction of Government & territory, ought to be guarantied by the United States to each State. 12. Resolved that provision ought to be made for the continuance of Congress and their authorities and privileges, until a given day after the reform of the articles of Union shall be adopted, and for the completion of all their engagements. 13. Resolved that provision ought to be made for the amendment of the Articles of Union whensoever it shall seem necessary, and that the assent of the National Legislature ought not to be required thereto. 14. Resolved that the Legislative Executive & Judiciary powers within the several States ought to be bound by oath to support the articles of Union. 15. Resolved that the amendments which shall be offered to the Confederation, by the Convention ought at a proper time, or times, after the approbation of Congress to be submitted to an assembly or assemblies of Representatives, recommended by the several Legislatures to be expressly chosen by the people, to consider & decide thereon. Which of the following best describes the amendment process in the Constitution?Which of the following best describes the formal process of amending the Constitution? Propose an amendment, then state legislatures ratify it.
Which of the following best explains the cause of the emergence of new political parties in the early 19th century?Which of the following best explains the cause of the emergence of new political parties in the early nineteenth century? Debates over federal issues such as internal improvements, tariffs, and the abolition of slavery fueled the rise—and sometimes decline—of parties such as the Jacksonian Democrats, and the Whigs.
Which of the following is true about the states in amending the Constitution?Which of the following is true about the states and amending the Constitution? The states may never be involved with amending the federal Constitution. The states may amend the federal Constitution without consultation or communication with Congress.
Which of the following is true of John Marshall's decision in McCulloch v Maryland quizlet?Which of the following is true of John Marshall's decision in McCulloch v. Maryland? It increased federal authority by invoking the doctrine of implied powers. Which of the following Supreme Court decisions directly dealt with Native American territorial rights?
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Which of the following best describes the historical situation in which the amendment was proposed quizlet?
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