IntroductionWhat is an indicator?Indicators are tools used to measure Social Behavior Change Communication (SBCC) program progress. They are used to assess the state of a program by defining its characteristics or variables, and then tracking changes in those characteristics over time or between groups. Clear indicators are the basis of any effective monitoring and evaluation system. Show While partners in the community and key stakeholders will help design an SBCC program, it is ultimately the responsibility of the organization to assess its success and report results to the donor. Indicators are used to create targets that allow program staff to measure up-to-date characteristics of the program’s success and assess whether those results are in line with program expectations. The indicators themselves are vital to this process, as they are the key for successful tracking of program changes or problems. As a tracking device indicators alert managers to any needed mid-course adjustments if it is found that the program is having unexpected difficulties or going off track. At the end of the program they are measured to validate the success and achievements of the intervention. 1. Explain how to create indicators 2. Identify when to use indicators 3. Know how to set baselines and targets using indicators How to Develop a Monitoring and Evaluation Plan The first step to creating program indicators for monitoring and evaluation is to determine which characteristics of the program are most important to track. A program will use many indicators to assess different types and levels of change that result from the intervention, like changes in certain health knowledge, attitudes, and behaviors among the priority audience(s). Referring to the program’s logic model can help to identify key program areas that need to be included in monitoring indicators. Indicators fall under the three stages of the logic model, which include:
Each stage of the logic model can use indicators to assess inputs, outputs, and outcomes. Process indicators consist of inputs as well as outputs and provide information about the scope and quality of activities implemented; these are considered monitoring indicators. Performance indicators include outcomes and are most commonly used to measure changes towards progress of results; these are considered evaluation indicators. One way to develop good indicators is to use the SMART criteria, as explained below. Consider each of these points when developing new indicators or revising old ones.
Implemented between 2008 and 2011 in Tanzania, the Fataki Campaign was designed to address the potential risk of HIV exposure in intergenerational relationships, through which older men offer young women financial or material goods in exchange for sex. This campaign included various mass-media and community-based activities. The monitoring and evaluation process for this campaign used multiple indicators to track the progress of the intervention, including ones used to track community discussions about Fatakis. One such indicator is used in the example below. Note how much the indicator improves through this SMART process. The example below uses the SMART approach to improve an indicator related to family planning.
To show change or progress in a program, a reference point must be established. A reference point is a point before, during, or at the end of a program where indicators are used to establish the state of the program in terms of the audience’s knowledge, attitudes or behavior in order to provide a point of comparison as the program progresses. The reference point is often chosen before or at the start of a program to assess the progress of the program over time. At the same time, implementation timelines do not always allow for baseline data to be collected. In these cases reference points can be set up at other times in the program. Depending on the stage of the intervention, a reference group can be established in one of several ways (see Figure 1 in Step 5):
For example, the Fataki campaign described earlier chose to establish a reference point through a control group, which was then compared to those who were exposed to the Fataki campaign. This method is an acceptable way of evaluating a program, although it creates complications when used for ongoing monitoring. Targets define the path and end destination of what a program hopes to achieve and is a number or percentage which will measure success. Once the reference point is established, determine what changes should be seen in the program’s indicators that would reflect progress towards success. When establishing targets, consider:
The table below provides an example of how to visually organize inputs/outputs/outcomes, indicators, reference points and targets, using the same Fataki campaign described earlier. Making a table like the one below can provide a method for tracking the progress of the program and understanding how each indicator, reference point, and target fits with the logic model.
As a last step, consider how often data should be collected in order to properly track the program’s progress. These designated points in time are usually referred to as benchmarks. Ideally, at least one round of data collection should occur between the reference point and the end of the program. If the data are collected at the midpoint of the program, it is called a midline. If data are collected at the end of the program, it is called an endline (see Figure 1). In the Fataki example, only endline data was collected. The frequency of collecting data is mostly dependent on the cost and length of the program — longer programs, or those with more funding, can typically collect comprehensive data more frequently than shorter programs or those with less funding. Figure 1 Proper indicators are crucial to any program as they provide data needed to track program progress. By closely tracking the progress of a program, any problems can be quickly identified and addressed. Being able to address problems in a timely manner can help improve programs and ensure better results. Better results allows for informed progress reports grounded in evidence, which help prove the effectiveness of a program to current and future funders. In order to make the most out of indicators, they should be “SMART” (Specific, Measurable, Attainable, Relevant, and Time-Bound) and establish a point of reference, targets, and frequency of data collection for effective program monitoring and evaluation.
Institutionalizing Learning. Designing for Results: Integrating Monitoring and Evaluation in Conflict Transformation Programs. UNAIDS. Monitoring and Evaluating Fundamentals. An Introduction to Indicators. UNDP. Selecting Indicators for Impact Evaluation Kusek, J.Z., & Rist, R.C. (2004). Ten Steps to a Results-Based Monitoring and Evaluation System: Planning for Improving – Selecting Results Targets. Banner Photo: © 2007 Bonnie Gillespie, Courtesy of Photoshare Which of the following are set up to monitor all areas of care that tend to cause problems?Phlebotomy Essentials. Which organization establishes standards for equipment?The existing OSHA standards for personal protective equipment (PPE) are contained in Subpart I of OSHA's general industry standards. These standards were adopted in 1971 from established Federal standards and national consensus standards.
What is Qi in phlebotomy?Phlebotomy issues and quality improvement in results of laboratory testing.
What is an example of a QC measure in phlebotomy?An example of a QC measure in phlebotomy is: Checking the expiration dates of evacuated tubes.
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