Getting Started in the Writing Process Show Writer's Choices PACES Model P = Purpose (Why?) Why am I writing on this topic? What purpose do I hope to achieve?
A = Audience (For Whom am I writing?) Types of Audiences: Factors to Consider About your Audience: age, education level, occupation, gender, ethnicity, religion, political persuasion, hobbies/interests, socio-economic status, relationship to you C = Code (How do I adapt to my audience? Two Parts 1. Tone: what attitude will I express about my topic-- a. Diction: what words will I choose? b. Syntax: how will I structure my sentences to create a mood? 2. Strategy: what mode of writing will best suit my purpose and audience? a. narration/description b. cause-effect c. compare-contrast d. argument-persuasion E = Experience (From what experiences will I draw to develop my topic?) a. personal experience b. other people's experiences (interviews, polls, surveys) c. research (books, periodicals, internet) S = Self/Persona (How will I hope to come across to my reader? a. academic/formal b. informal/friendly c. sarcastic d. aggressive e. compassionate f. humorous END Introduction to Argument-Persuasion Writing Definitions What Makes a Strong Argument-Persuasion Essay? 1. Effective Claim Statement (previously called a thesis) Types of Claims a. Claim of Fact:asserts that a condition has existed, exists, or will exist. To support--use factual evidence that is sufficient, reliable, and appropriate. Examples-- Teens who engage in promiscuous, unprotected sex will develop STDs, become pregnant, and/or contract AIDS. Smoking is an addiction that people are genetically predisposed to. Three Dangers with Claims of Fact:
b. Claim of Value:makes a judgment (subjective); expresses approval or disapproval about something; attempts to show that something is wrong/right, moral/immoral, beautiful/ugly. To support--you must establish standards that you are using to measure the beauty or morality of your topic Examples--Homosexuality is immoral because it violates religious, societal, and biological standards. Monet's art is more beautiful than Picasso's because of its use of soft color, uplifting subject matter, and unique technique. c. Claim of Policy:argues that something SHOULD/SHOULD not be done, believed, banned...;argues for a course of action. Also called the Problem-Solution technique. To support--you must first convince the audience that a problem exists and then prove that your policy will fix it. Examples--Uniforms SHOULD be required at all public high schools. (First show the reader how awful the schools are now, and then explain how your policy would be implemented and how it would work. END What Makes a Strong A-P Essay? 1. Effective Claim Statement 2. Defining Major Terms Ways to Define
Example: Pornography is obscene, salacious, lewd.
Example: Penthouse and XXX movies are examples of porn.
How to Stipulate (Three Parts)
Examples--
OR
OR
The most effective definitions will be a combination of all three techniques. They will begin with a one sentence stipulation, and then be followed by three or four sentences containing examples and synonyms for the term. END
In Gorman's essay "The Doctor Won't See You Now," he seems to present a claim that doctors should "not have to treat any poor slob who comes to them...especially those who are old and on the way out anyway...or smokers, drinkers." Just as one might be thinking that he is a real bastard for being so cruel, we then read something almost funny; he says doctors should not have to treat "anyone who writes a lot of trash about ethics and responsibility"(just as he is doing) or "anyone who has sex more often than I do." Now we know that he can't be serious. These lines of absurdity are clear hints that he is not being serious, but he is making a poignant point about what doctors should NOT be like. Benefits of Negation:
What Makes a Strong Argument-Persuasion Essay?
2. Defining Major Terms 3. Acceptable Assumptions/Warrants Assumption/Warrant: unexamined but believed belief (a statement/idea that is accepted as given, needing no further proof). Warrants often act as bridges between support and claims. Examples:
Types of Assumptions/Warrants 1. Authoritative: based on the credibility of the source Example: Claim: Adoption of a vegetarian diet leads to a healthier life. (COF) Support: The authors of Vegetarian Lifestyles say so. Warrant: Authors are credible. Backing: proof that the authors can be trusted (use their credentials) 2. Substantive: based on beliefs about the reliability and verifiability of factual evidence Example: Claim: Maryanne is mentally deficient. (COF) Support: She cannot understand Tolstoy's War and Peace. Warrant: Maryanne is at an age where she can read, and anyone who cannot understand War and Peace is deficient. This would be an unacceptable assumption. 3. Motivational: based on the needs and values of the audience. Example: Claim: Laws making marijuana illegal should be repealed. (COP) Support: People should have a right to use any substance they wish. Warrant: Laws should not prevent citizens from exercising their freedoms because people (audience) value freedom/autonomy. END What Makes a Strong A-P Essay?
Criteria For Strong Evidence All evidence must be: EXAMPLE CLAIM: Going to college immediately following high school is the most effective way to become a successful adult. (COF) POOR EVIDENCE (only applies to YOUR experiences): When I graduated high school, I went to SCC and immediately started making business contacts. I was able to get my first full-time job in the administration office..... END 5. Using Sound Reasoning Types of Reasoning 1. Inductive:specific evidence/data leads to a general conclusion Example:I have a runny nose. My joints hurt. I am coughing. Therefore, I have a cold. (A + B + C = Z) 2. Deductive: begin with a general conclusion and work down to specific points that follow from that conclusion. Formula for Deduction (also called a Syllogism) MAJOR PREMISE (A): Makes a general statement about a large group MINOR PREMISE (B): Makes a statement about a specific member of the group CONCLUSION (Z): Provides a statement about the relationship between the member and the group to which he belongs. Example: A--Presidents cheat on their wives. B--Bill Clinton was President. Z--Bill Clinton cheated on his wife. OR A--Conservative Republicans are pro-life and pro-capital punishment. B--Marla is a Conservative Republican. Z--Marla is pro-life and pro-death penalty. What Makes Reasoning Sound? 1. Valid Form: A and B (and C and D...) must lead to Z (conclusion). If all Presidents behave this way and if Bill was President, then must he have behaved this way too? 2. True and Sufficient Content:A and B (and C and D...) must all be true (verifiable) and they must be sufficient enough to prove the conclusion (Z) is true. Is it true that all Presidents cheat on their wives or that all Conservative Republicans are pro-life and pro-death penalty? END What Makes a Strong A-P Essay?
6. Balance of Logos, Pathos, and Ethos
How to establish pathos: Picturesque Language: language specifically designed to create a picture/image in the reader's mind by appealing to the senses Connotation vs. Denotation: Denotation means the literal (dictionary) meaning of words; connotation refers to the meanings that have bee attached to words by society (positive or negative). Writers must carefully select words that convey the appropriate response. Examples: "House" is a neutral term for where we live, but "home" creates a more positive feeling. "Police officer" is fairly neutral, yet "Peace officer" is more flattering and "cop" sounds unappealing.
How to establish ethos:
END Step 7 Raising Opposing Views Structure Each represents a new paragraph Introduction: Attention-getter (quote, story, statistic, questions); Background information to set up the problem; Claim Statement (6-8 sentences)Example: Condoms should be distributed in public high school clinics Definitions: Use stipulation plus examples, descriptions, synonyms, negation to define major termsExample: Define distribution and clinic Raise Three Opposing Views to your own ClaimExample: Despite the need for condom distribution in high schools, many argue against such a policy. First, some believe that this would promote sex...Furthermore, others contend that it is the parents' job to discuss/distribute condoms. Finally, those opposed to condom distribution assert that it is immoral. Refute Opposing View #1Example: Even though opponents claim that distribution encourages sex,.....INSERT YOUR LOGOS to how that it doesn't Refute Opposing View #2Example: Opponents might believe that parents educate kids about sex; however,...INSERT LOGOS to show that they don't Refute Opposing View #3Example: Although several groups might suggest that condom distribution is immoral,... INSERT LOGOS to show that STD's, AIDS, and unwanted pregnancies are more immoral. Extra Supporting Evidence (optional)If any other evidence remains that helps to prove your claim, put it here. Conclusion: Restate your claim; summarize your points; make a prediction; provide a call to action for the reader; refer back to your introduction attention-getterStep 8 :Revisions Logical Fallacies 1. Ad ignorantium: falsely assumes that something is true because you cannot prove that it is false (or vice versa)
2. Card Stacking: Selective reporting only the positive data, ignoring the negative
3. Hasty Generalization: drawing a conclusion from too little evidence
4. Post Hoc Ergo Propter Hoc (Post Hoc): falsely assumes that just because two events happen close together in time, there is a cause-effect relationship.
5. Ad Hominem: attacking the person on irrelevant grounds instead of attacking his position. Also called "Mudslinging"
6. Genetic Fallacy: attacking something based on its creator
7. Bandwagon: appeals to peer pressure rather than logic. Also called "everybody's doing it" fallacy
8. Red Herring: arguing outside the point; going off on a tangent
9. Tu Quoque: falsely assuming that two wrongs do make a right
10. Begging the Question: having unacceptable assumptions
11. Glittering Generalities: using attractive sounding language that is intentionally vague
12. Questionable authority: assuming that the reader will trust your sources without proper proof
13. False Analogy: comparing two things that have some similarities but ignoring major differences.
14. False Dilemma: falsely assuming that there are only two possibilities and no compromise. Also called the "Either/or Fallacy.
15. Non-sequitur: the conclusion does not follow from the evidence
16. Slippery Slope: falsely assuming that one thing will lead to another, and another and another....
END Possible Structures for Writing Essay #1 1. Claim of Fact Essays Use the standard five paragraph essay format: EXAMPLE: INTRODUCTION PARAGRAPH DEFINITION PARAGRAPH
BODY PARAGRAPH 1
BODY PARAGRAPH 2
BODY PARAGRAPH 3
CONCLUSION PARAGRAPH 2. Claim of Value Essay INTRODUCTION BODY PARAGRAPH 1
BODY PARAGRAPH 2
BODY PARAGRAPH 3
CONCLUSION PARAGRAPH 3. Claim of Policy Essay (not a typical intro and concluding paragraph) FIRST SECTION OF THE ESSAY (possibly three paragraphs?)
SECOND SECTION OF THE ESSAY (possibly another three or more paragraphs) END Step 9: The Research Process--Taking Notes on and Pulling information out of texts
to capture experts' opinions to cite memorable/beautiful language to keep a phrase concise and accurate Step 10: Documenting Your Sources Using MLA In-text parentheticals (Author's Last Name Page). End-Text Citations (Works Cited) END Step 11: Create an Effective Title Strategies1. Declarative � Organ Donations � Stem Cell Research � Prayer in School 2. Author�s Declarative � Heroic Organ Donors � A Vote for Prayer in School 3. Colon Title � Organ Donations: The Gift of Life � Stem Cells: The Promise of Modern Science � Prayer in School: A Constitutional Right 4. Humorous/Sarcastic � Is Big Brother Watching? Let Us Pray 5. Question � Can the Children Bow Their Heads? � What are Embryos For? 6. Alliterative � Doing One�s Duty--Donating � A Sanctuary for The Sick: Stem Cell Research � Permission to Pray Please 7. Pun END How to Analyze Someone Else's Argument Formula: Introduction
Body Paragraphs (Three)
Conclusion
Comparative Analysis Definition: Comparing two essays written on the same topic to assess which presents a stronger case (not which one you happen to agree with) Two Structures for Analysis Essay #1--A Essay #2--B Block Method Introduction
Body Paragraphs ALL ABOUT A (identify three strong or weak elements of A)
A third element (i.e. ethos) A versus B
END Your job for Essay #3 is to write a comparative analysis in which you argue that one essay does a superior job to another, both arguing the same position, one in favor of and one against. What is a proposition in speech?The proposition of your speech is the overall direction of the content and how that relates to the speech goal. A persuasive speech will fall primarily into one of three categories: propositions of fact, value, or policy.
What type of proposition is based on a judgment that reflects the speaker's opinions about what is important moral and right?Propositions of Value
Persuasive speakers may also be called to address questions of value, which call for a proposition judging the (relative) worth of something. These propositions make an evaluative claim regarding morality, aesthetics, wisdom, or desirability.
What is a policy claim speech?In policy claims, persuaders attempt to convince their audiences to either passively accept or actively act. When persuaders attempt to gain passive agreement from an audience, they hope that an audience will agree with what is said about a specific policy without asking the audience to do anything to enact the policy.
What is persuasive speech?A persuasive speech is a speech that is given with the intention of convincing the audience to believe or do something. This could be virtually anything - voting, organ donation, recycling, and so on.
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