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6.1 What Is Learning?Instincts and reflexes are innate behaviors—they occur naturally and do not involve learning. In contrast, learning is a change in behavior or knowledge that results from experience. There are three main types of learning: classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and observational learning. Both classical and operant conditioning are forms of associative learning where associations are made between events that occur together. Observational learning is just as it sounds: learning by observing others. 6.2 Classical ConditioningPavlov’s pioneering work with dogs contributed greatly to what we know about learning. His experiments explored the type of associative learning we now call classical conditioning. In classical conditioning, organisms learn to associate events that repeatedly happen together, and researchers study how a reflexive response to a stimulus can be mapped to a different stimulus—by training an association between the two stimuli. Pavlov’s experiments show how stimulus-response bonds are formed. Watson, the founder of behaviorism, was greatly influenced by Pavlov’s work. He tested humans by conditioning fear in an infant known as Little Albert. His findings suggest that classical conditioning can explain how some fears develop. 6.3 Operant ConditioningOperant conditioning is based on the work of B. F. Skinner. Operant conditioning is a form of learning in which the motivation for a behavior happens after the behavior is demonstrated. An animal or a human receives a consequence after performing a specific behavior. The consequence is either a reinforcer or a punisher. All reinforcement (positive or negative) increases the likelihood of a behavioral response. All punishment (positive or negative) decreases the likelihood of a behavioral response. Several types of reinforcement schedules are used to reward behavior depending on either a set or variable period of time. 6.4 Observational Learning (Modeling)According to Bandura, learning can occur by watching others and then modeling what they do or say. This is known as observational learning. There are specific steps in the process of modeling that must be followed if learning is to be successful. These steps include attention, retention, reproduction, and motivation. Through modeling, Bandura has shown that children learn many things both good and bad simply by watching their parents, siblings, and others. Think Like a Psychologist: Principles in Action MACHINE The mind is a product of a physical machine, the brain. In animals, fear conditioning such as Little Albert experienced is the result of changes in a brain region called the amygdala. People with damage to the amygdala don’t seem to be afraid of anything, so it would be impossible to induce fear conditioning in them. UNCONSCIOUS We are consciously aware of only a small part of our mental activity. People subjected to classical conditioning report that they do not consciously produce the conditioned response; it seems to happen on its own, in a reflexive fashion. Little Albert’s fearful responses certainly appear reflexive. If Albert Barger was indeed Little Albert, and if his dislike of dogs was a result of Watson’s manipulations, he was unaware of the connection. SOCIAL We constantly modify our behavior, beliefs, and attitudes according to what we perceive about the people around us. Whichever child was the true Little Albert, he was available for Watson’s study because his mother, pregnant out of wedlock, had few options to support them. This was the result of social attitudes at the time, which heaped shame on unwed mothers. Was Watson more willing to conduct his experiment on a child in such circumstances than a child of middle-class parents? EXPERIENCE Our experiences physically alter the structure and function of the brain. Whatever Little Albert’s true name, he became terrified of many furry objects as a result of experiencing the pairing of such stimuli with loud, startling sounds. Indeed, all instances of learning result from experience. It is possible that Albert Barger’s lifelong dislike of dogs was a result of his experiences as an infant. What do we call the learning that occurs when a stimulus?Classical conditioning refers to learning that occurs when a neutral stimulus (e.g., a tone) becomes associated with a stimulus (e.g., food) that naturally produces a behaviour. After the association is learned, the previously neutral stimulus is sufficient to produce the behaviour.
In which type of learning does the stimulus or experience occurs before the behavior and then gets paired with the behavior?In classical conditioning, the event that drives the behavior (the stimulus) comes before the behavior; in operant conditioning, the event that drives the behavior (the consequence) comes after the behavior.
What theory of learning may be defined as a type of learning in which a stimulus acquires the capacity to evoke a response that was originally evoked by another stimulus?Classical conditioning is a learning process that involves pairing a previously neutral stimulus with a stimulus that naturally evokes a response. After a response has been acquired, the previously neutral stimulus will then evoke the response all on its own.
What is a stimulus in classical conditioning?A conditioned stimulus is a stimulus that can eventually trigger a conditioned response. In the described experiment, the conditioned stimulus was the ringing of the bell, and the conditioned response was salivation. It is important to note that the neutral stimulus becomes the conditioned stimulus.
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What is a form of learning in which the stimulus experience happens after the behavior is demonstrated?
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