The Age of Reason, as it was called, was spreading rapidly across Europe. In the late 17th century, scientists like Isaac Newton and writers like John Locke were challenging the old order. Newton's laws of gravity and motion described the world in terms of natural laws beyond any spiritual force. In the wake of political turmoil in England, Locke asserted the right of a people to change a government that did not protect natural rights of life, liberty and property. People were beginning to doubt the existence of a God who could predestine human beings to eternal damnation and empower a tyrant for a king. Europe would be forever changed by these ideas. Show
In America, intellectuals were reading these ideas as well. On their side of the Atlantic, Enlightened ideas of liberty and progress had a chance to flourish without the shackles of Old Europe. Religious leaders began to change their old dogmatic positions. They began to emphasize the similarities between the Anglican Church and the Puritan Congregationalists rather than the differences. Even Cotton Mather, the Massachusetts minister who wrote and spoke so convincingly about the existence of witches advocated science to immunize citizens against smallpox. Harvard ministers became so liberal that Yale College was founded in New Haven in 1707 in an attempt to retain old Calvinist ideas. This attempt failed and the entire faculty except one converted to the Church of England in 1722. By the end of the century, many New England ministers would become Unitarians, doubting even the divinity of Christ. Triomphe de VoltaireNew ideas shaped political attitudes as well. John Locke defended the displacement of a monarch who would not protect the lives, liberties, and property of the English people. Jean-Jacques Rousseau stated that society should be ruled by the "general will" of the people. Baron de Montesquieu declared that power should not be concentrated in the hands of any one individual. He recommended separating power among executive, legislative, judicial branches of government. American intellectuals began to absorb these ideas. The delegates who declared independence from Britain used many of these arguments. The entire opening of the Declaration of Independence is Thomas Jefferson's application of John Locke's ideas. The constitutions of our first states and the United States Constitution reflect Enlightenment principles. The writings of Benjamin Franklin made many Enlightenment ideas accessible to the general public. The old way of life was represented by superstition, an angry God, and absolute submission to authority. The thinkers of the Age of Reason ushered in a new way of thinking. This new way championed the accomplishments of humankind. Individuals did not have to accept despair. Science and reason could bring happiness and progress. Kings did not rule by divine right. They had an obligation to their subjects. Europeans pondered the implications for nearly a century. Americans put them into practice first. CoverIntroductionTable of Contents with Critical Media Literacy ConnectionsUpdates & Latest AdditionsLearning Pathway: Racial Justice and Black Lives MatterLearning Pathway: Influential WomenLearning Pathway: Student RightsLearning Pathway: Elections 2024, 2022, & 2020Learning Pathway: Current Events Learning Pathway: Critical Media LiteracyTeacher-Designed Learning PlansTopic 1. The Philosophical Foundations of the United States Political System1.1. The Government of Ancient Athens1.2. The Government of the Roman Republic1.3. Enlightenment Thinkers and Democratic Government1.4. British Influences on American Government1.5. Native American Influences on U.S. GovernmentTopic 2. The Development of the United States Government2.1. The Revolutionary Era and the Declaration of Independence2.2. The Articles of Confederation2.3. The Constitutional Convention2.4. Debates between Federalists and Anti-Federalists2.5. Articles of the Constitution and the Bill of RightsTopic 3. Institutions of United States Government3.1. Branches of the Government and the Separation of Powers3.2. Checks and Balances Between the Branches of Government3.3. The Roles of the Congress, the President, and the Courts3.4. Elections and Nominations3.5. The Role of Political PartiesTopic 4. The Rights and Responsibilities of Citizens4.1. Becoming a Citizen4.2. Rights and Responsibilities of Citizens and Non-Citizens4.3. Civic, Political, and Private Life4.4. Fundamental Principles and Values of American Political and Civic Life4.5. Voting and Citizen Participation in the Political Process4.6. Election Information4.7. Leadership and the Qualities of Political Leaders4.8. Cooperation Between Individuals and Elected Leaders4.9. Public Service as a Career4.10. Liberty in Conflict with Equality or Authority4.11. Political Courage and Those Who Affirmed or Denied Democratic Ideals4.12. The Role of Political Protest4.13. Public and Private Interest Groups, PACs, and Labor UnionsTopic 5. The Constitution, Amendments, and Supreme Court Decisions5.1. The Necessary and Proper Clause5.2. Amendments to the Constitution5.3. Constitutional Issues Related to the Civil War, Federal Power, and Individual Civil Rights5.4. Civil Rights and Equal Protection for Race, Gender, and Disability5.5. Marbury v. Madison and the Principle of Judicial Review5.6. Significant Supreme Court DecisionsTopic 6. The Structure of Massachusetts State and Local Government6.1. Functions of State and National Government6.2. United States and Massachusetts Constitutions6.3. Enumerated and Implied Powers6.4. Core Documents: The Protection of Individual Rights6.5. 10th Amendment to the Constitution6.6. Additional Provisions of the Massachusetts Constitution6.7. Responsibilities of Federal, State and Local Government6.8. Leadership Structure of the Massachusetts Government6.9. Tax-Supported Facilities and Services6.10. Components of Local GovernmentTopic 7. Freedom of the Press and News/Media Literacy7.1. Freedom of the Press7.2. Competing Information in a Free Press7.3. Writing the News: Different Formats and Their Functions7.4. Digital News and Social Media7.5. Evaluating Print and Online Media7.6. Analyzing Editorials, Editorial Cartoons, or Op-Ed CommentariesGlossaryIndex of Terms 1.3 Enlightenment Thinkers and Democratic GovernmentYour browser does not support the audio tag. Standard 1.3: Enlightenment Thinkers and Democratic GovernmentExplain the influence of Enlightenment thinkers on the American Revolution and the framework of American government. (Massachusetts Curriculum Framework for History and Social Studies) [8.T1.3] FOCUS QUESTION: How did the Enlightenment Contribute to the Growth of Democratic Principles of Government?"British Museum Room 1 Enlightenment" by Mendhak is licensed under CC-BY-SA-2.0The Enlightenment (or Age of Reason) is the term used to define the outpouring of philosophical, scientific, and political knowledge in Europe at the beginning of the 18th century. European civilization had already experienced the Renaissance (1300-1600) and the Scientific Revolution (1550-1700). The Enlightenment further transformed intellectual and political life based on the application of science to dramatically alter traditional beliefs and practices. Explore our resourcesforhistoryteachers wiki page to learn more about the Main Ideas of Enlightenment Thinkers. Enlightenment thinkers believed that rational reasoning could apply to all forms of human activity. Their writing can be "broadly understood to stand for the claim that all individuals have the right to share their own ends for themselves rather than let others do it for them" (Pagden, 2013, p. x). Politically, they asked what was the proper relationship of the citizen to the monarch or the state. They held that society existed as a contract between individuals and some larger political entity. They advanced the idea of freedom and equality before the law. Enlightenment ideas about how governments should be organized and function influenced both the American and French Revolutions. The Enlightenment is commonly associated with men whose writing and thinking combined philosophy, politics, economics and science, notably John Locke, Thomas Hobbes, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Adam Smith, Immanuel Kant, Isaac Newton and Thomas Jefferson. Women too, though often downplayed or ignored in the textbooks and curriculum frameworks, contributed change-producing ideas and actions, including Mary Wollstonecraft, Olympe de Gouges, Mary Astell, Caroline Herschel, Emile du Chatelet, and Maria Sybilla Merian. Explore our resourcesforhistoryteachers wiki page to learn more about The Enlightenment, Principles of Democratic Government and Women's Political Empowerment. How did the Enlightenment's optimistic faith in the discovery and application of natural law to human life inspire revolution and reform throughout the world? As the National Center for History in Schools (1992) noted: "The first great upheavals to be marked - though surely not 'caused' - by Enlightenment thought were the American and French revolutions, and they opened the modern era of world history" (p. 262). The modules in this topic explore the catalysts for revolutionary change through the writings and actions of men and women philosophers, scientists, and change-makers. Modules for this Standard Include:1. INVESTIGATE: Locke, Montesquieu, and Rousseau and Their Influence on GovernmentThe American Revolution and the subsequent framework of American government were heavily influenced by John Locke, Baron de Montesquieu, and Jean Jacques Rousseau - three Enlightenment philosophers who “developed theories of government in which some or even all the people would govern” (Constitutional Rights Foundation, 2019, para. 10). Each rejected in one way or another the views of Thomas Hobbes who believed government must be led by an all-powerful king. The Constitutional Rights Foundation has characterized Locke as a “reluctant” democrat because he favored a representative government, Montesquieu a “balanced” democrat who favored a combination of a king checked by a legislative body, and Rousseau an “extreme” democrat because he believed everyone should vote. Each influenced the founding and development of United States government. John LockeJohn Locke (1632-1704) was a political theorist who is remembered as the father of modern republican government. He believed a state could only be legitimate if it received the consent of the governed through a social contract. In Locke’s view, social contract theory protected the natural rights of life, liberty, and property. If this did not happen, he argued, the people had a right to rebel. His ideas about the consent of the governed and the right to rebellion would later influence the supporters of the American Revolution and the framers of the U.S. Constitution. "Portrait of John Locke" | Public DomainLocke supported England's constitutional monarchy and promoted democratic governments with a system of checks and balances. Thomas Jefferson's famous quote from the Declaration of Independence was based on Lockean philosophy: "We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the Pursuit of Happiness.” In Locke’s view, all men—literally men and not women—had the political rights to life, liberty, and the pursuit of private property. He also believed that human beings, because of divine will are by nature inherently good and can make their own reasonable decisions if left alone by the government. John Locke wrote Two Treatises on Civil Government (1690). Watch this Video summarizing and highlighting his main ideas. Baron de MontesquieuBaron de Montesquieu (1689-1755) is perhaps best known for his belief in the separation of governmental powers. Inspired by England's Glorious Revolution and Constitutional Monarchy, Montesquieu believed that in an ideal state there are two types of governmental authority:
In Montesquieu’s view, there are also three administrative powers within a state, each providing a check and balance on the others:
The purpose behind this system of checks and balances was to prevent a single individual or group of people from having full control of the state. Ironically, while Montesquieu was inspired by Britain's Constitutional monarchy, England during the time period did not practice separation of governmental powers. Indeed, until the late 1800s, the British Monarchy effectively ruled the nation with the help of the House of Lords and the House of Commons. To this day, England still does not have an official written constitution. The idea of a constitutional government with three separate branches of the state would later become essential in the writing of the American constitution. To get any official new legislation passed into law, the U.S. President must always work together with Congress. This is a legacy of Montesquieu's political philosophy in practice today. Jean Jacques RousseauJean Jacques Rousseau believed that human beings are basically good by nature, but historical events have corrupted them and the present state of civil society. Although "he did not go to school for a single day and was essentially self-taught, his writings included a political theory that deeply influenced the American Founding Fathers and the French Revolutionaries. . ." (Damrosch, 2005, p. 1). "Rousseau Statute, Geneva Switzerland", Public Domain In Rousseau's ideal world, people would live in small communal farming communities and make decisions democratically. His 1762 work, The Social Contract, begins with the famous line, “Man was born free, but everywhere he is in chains” (para. 2). Rousseau believed that people could regain their lost freedom by creating a society where citizens choose to obey laws they themselves created, giving up some personal self gains in exchange for a wider common good. He advocated for direct democracy where everyone’s votes determine what happens politically. To read more, explore an interactive transcript for the "Introduction to Rousseau: The Social Contract" video using VidReader, a tool that creates interactive transcripts for YouTube videos. Suggested Learning Activities
Online Resources about Enlightenment Philosophers
2.UNCOVER: Mary Wollstonecraft, Olympe de Gouges, and the Rights of WomenMary WollstonecraftMary Wollstonecraft (1759 - 1797) was a writer and advocate for women’s rights. She believed that women should be given greater education because of their importance in raising children and being not just wives but partners or “companions” with their husbands. Her personal life, that included an illegitimate child, love affairs, and suicide attempts, was considered scandalous at the time. She died at age 38. Her daughter was Mary Shelley, author of the novel, Frankenstein. by Paul, C. Kegan; St. John, Cynthia Morgan, No RestrictionsMary Wollstonecraft believed that women should have the same rights as men (including life and liberty). In A Vindication of the Rights of Man (1790), she opposed monarchy and aristocracy. In 1792, she published A Vindication of the Rights of Woman in which she asked:
Wollstonecraft also urged establishment of a national education system with mixed gender schools; such education would give women the right to earn their own living (British Library Book/Manuscript Annotation). Olympe de GougesOlympe de Gouges (1748 - 1793) was a French writer and activist for women’s rights during the French Revolution. She was the author of The Declaration of the Rights of Women and Female Citizen (1791), a powerful call for gender equality and political change. She was subsequently beheaded during the Reign of Terror, the only woman executed for her political writing during that time. She wrote, “A woman has the right to be guillotined; she should also have the right to debate” (quoted in “The Writer’s Almanac,” November 3, 2019). Twitter banner created for #wikiwomeninred and the womeninred project by Victuallers Olympe de Gouges’ activism contrasted dramatically with the traditional gender roles women were expected to play in European society. Although women did not have many rights and privileges, de Gouges used ideas from the Enlightenment to advocate for greater rights for women and enslaved Black people. Suggested Learning Activities
Online Resources for Mary Wollstonecraft, Olympe De Gouges and Rights of Women
3.ENGAGE: How Can Schools Support the Political Ambitions of Young Girls?A dramatic and continuing gender gap continues to exist between women and men in STEM careers. Women make up less than a third of the workers in biological science, chemistry, computers, engineering, and architecture (The STEM Gap: Women and Girls in Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics). Less well-known is a political gender gap that exists between women and men in careers in government, politics, and law. Women hold only a small percentage of local, state, and national political offices throughout the country. In legal fields, where women graduate from law school at about the same rate as men, women make considerably less money and far fewer advance to become judges. Although both girls and boys show interest in politics in the younger grades, fewer young women pursue careers in government or politics. Researching this issue, a group of political scientists found that longstanding gender stereotypes and lack of role models are among the reasons why young girls do not pursue these opportunities. As they proceed through school, many girls follow societal expectations that direct them toward jobs and careers that match gender stereotypes for women. Just as in math and science fields, young girls develop lower interest and ambition in politics than boys ("This One's for the Boys: How Gendered Socialization Limits Girls' Political Ambition and Interest," American Political Science Review, May 2022). What can your school or community do to inspire the political career ambitions of young girls? Perhaps learning the histories of women change-makers would be a first step? Katherine Johnson is one important example. Katherine Johnson was a mathematician and physicist at NASA (National Aeronautics and Space Administration) whose math and science work were essential to the success of early United States space exploration, including the 1962 flight when John Glenn became the first American man to orbit the earth. Her work in STEM was the basis for the book Hidden Figures (Shetterly, 2016) and 2017 movie. "Katherine Johnson at NASA, 1966" Katherine Johnson was a pioneer in civil rights as well. She was one of the first Black students to integrate into graduate schools in West Virginia; the third African American to earn a doctoral degree in mathematics; and a Presidential Medal of Honor recipient. Beyond learning about historical role models that counter longstanding gender stereotypes:
Media Literacy Connections: 21st Century Women STEM InnovatorsWomen, whose work in philosophy, science, and politics is often neglected or marginalized in history textbooks and curriculum framework, made change-producing discoveries and advances during the Enlightenment and in every era since. However, still in today's digital age, the most well-known figures are men: Steve Jobs, Elon Musk, and Mark Zuckerberg. Photo by Christina @ wocintechchat.com on Unsplash, free to useIn the following activities, you will explore the accomplishments of 21st century women innovators in the media and think about how to encourage more girls to pursue careers in science, technology, engineering and math (STEM): Suggested Learning Activities
Online Resources for Women Trailblazers
Conclusion for Standard 3This standard’s Investigate examined the work of John Locke, including his “Two Treatises of Government” (1690) and social contract theory, as well as Montesquieu’s formulation of checks and balances to prevent a single individual or group of people from having full control of the state. Uncover focused on the French feminist Olympe De Gouges who in 1791 published the Declaration of the Rights of Women and Female Citizen, a stirring call for the equality of women during the French Revolution. Engage asked how focusing on women in history and current society were important trailblazers, innovators, and change-makers can expand opportunities for young girls to pursue careers in politics, government and the law. CC BY-NC-SA: This work is released under a CC BY-NC-SA license, which means that you are free to do with it as you please as long as you (1) properly attribute it, (2) do not use it for commercial gain, and (3) share any subsequent works under the same or a similar license. Which Enlightenment thinker had the greatest influence on the Declaration of Independence?Most scholars today believe that Jefferson derived the most famous ideas in the Declaration of Independence from the writings of English philosopher John Locke. Locke wrote his Second Treatise of Government in 1689 at the time of England's Glorious Revolution, which overthrew the rule of James II.
Which Enlightenment thinker had the biggest impact?John Locke (29 August 1632 - 28 October 1704) was an English philosopher and physician regarded as one of the most influential of Enlightenment thinkers, especially concerning the development of political philosophy. His writings influenced Voltaire and Rousseau, but most importantly, the American revolutionaries.
Which two Enlightenment thinkers influenced the Declaration of Independence?The American Revolution and the subsequent framework of American government were heavily influenced by John Locke, Baron de Montesquieu, and Jean Jacques Rousseau - three Enlightenment philosophers who “developed theories of government in which some or even all the people would govern” (Constitutional Rights Foundation ...
How did John Locke influence the Declaration of Independence?Locke is notable for making the statement that all men have the right to pursue “Life, Liberty, and the Pursuit of Property.” In the Declaration of Independence, Thomas Jefferson alters this statement to state that all men have the rights to “life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness.” John Locke fused “individualism ...
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