E.Negotiators also need to remember that intangible factors influencetheir own behavior.VII.Actively Manage CoalitionsA.Negotiators should recognize three types of coalitions and theirpotential effects:1.Coalitionsagainst you,2.Coalitions that support you, and3.Loose, undefined coalitions that maymaterialize either for oragainst you.B.It is important to recognize when coalitions are alignedagainst you andto work consciously to counter their influence.C.Strongnegotiators need to monitor and manage coalitions proactively,and while this may takeconsiderable time throughout the negotiationprocess it will likely lead to large payoffs atthe implementation stage.VIII. Savor and Protect Your ReputationA.Starting negotiations with a positive reputation is essential, andnegotiatorsshould be vigilant in protecting their reputations.B.Rather than leaving reputation to chance, negotiators can work toshape and enhancetheir reputation by acting in a consistent and fairmanner.C.Strong negotiatorsalso periodically seek feedback from others aboutthe way they are perceived and usethat information to strengthentheir credibility and trustworthiness in the marketplace.IX. Remember That Rationality and Fairness Are RelativeA.People tend to view the world in a self-serving manner and define the“rational” thing to do or a “fair” outcome or process in a way thatbenefits themselves.12-7
• The process by which individuals connect to their environment.
• A “sense-making” process where people interpret their environment so they can respond appropriately.
perception and distortion by generalization
• A perceiver’s own needs, desires, motivation and personal experiences may create a predisposition about the other party. • This can lead to biases and errors in perception and subsequent communication. • Four major perceptual errors: – Stereotyping – Halo effects – Selective perception – Projection
stereotyping and halo effects
• Stereotyping: – Occurs when an individual assigns attributes to another solely on the basis of the other’s membership in a particular social or demographic category. – Very common and highly resistant to change • Halo effects: – Occur when an individual generalizes about a variety of attributes based on the knowledge of one attribute of an individual. (i.e. smiling=>honest) – Very similar to stereotyping
How do selective perception and projection occur?
• Perceptual distortion that involves anticipating certain attributes and qualities in another person • Selective perception: – The perceiver singles out information that supports a prior belief but filters out contrary information. – Perpetuates stereotypes or halo effects • Projection: – People assign to others the characteristics or feelings that they possess themselves – Arises out of a need to protect one’s own self-concept
– Are the perspectives or points of view that people use when they gather information and solve problems. – Represent the subjective mechanism through which people evaluate and make sense out of situations – Lead people to pursue or avoid subsequent actions – Focus, shape and organize the world around us – Make sense of complex realities and organize them in terms that are meaningful to us. – Two or more people involved in the same situation often see it or define it in different ways. ( i.e. How extroverts or introverts see a room full of people.)
How are frames critical in negotiations?
• Negotiators can use more than one frame • Mismatches in frames between parties are sources of conflict • Parties negotiate differently depending on the frame • Specific frames may be likely to be used with certain types of issues • Particular types of frames may lead to particular types of agreements • Parties are likely to assume a particular frame because of their values, personality, power,
How does an outcome frame function in an environmental dispute?
Why are mismatches in frames between parties sources of conflicts?
Identify and define the different types of cognitive bias
Define mood and emotion and their differences
• The distinction between mood and emotion is based on three characteristics: – Specificity – Intensity – Duration • Mood states are more diffused, less intense, and more enduring than emotion states.
describe how positive emotions emerge in negotiation and how they affect it?
– They are more likely to lead the parties toward more integrative processes – They create a positive attitude toward the other side – They promote persistence in addressing issues and concerns in the negotiation. ---------aspects that can to positive emotions – Positive feelings result from fair procedures during negotiation – Positive feelings result from favorable social comparison
describe how negative emotions emerge in negotiation and how they affect it?
too long for notecard....
What is communicated during negotiation?
• Communication processes, both verbal and nonverbal, are critical to achieving negotiation goals and to resolving conflicts.
We will examine the process by which negotiators communicate their own interests, positions, and goals and make sense of those of the other party
Define BATNA and how it changes things in a negotiation?
• negotiation: – Negotiators with attractive BATNAs set higher reservation prices for themselves than those without attractive BATNAs ; – Negotiators whose counterparts had attractive BATNAs set lower resistance points for themselves; and – When both parties were aware of the attractive BATNA that one of the negotiators had, that negotiator received a more positive negotiation outcome.
Define "social accounts" identify its different types
• The method used by negotiators to explain things to the other party , especially when negotiators need to justify bad news.
identify different types of "social accounts"
– Explanations of mitigating circumstances: negotiators had no choice in taking the positions they did – Explanations of exonerating circumstances: negotiators explain their positions from a broader perspective – Reframing explanations: outcomes can be explained by changing the context.
does it matter what is said early in the negotiation process?
– What negotiators do in the first half of the process has a significant impact on their ability to generate integrative solutions with high joint gains
Is more information always better?
– There is evidence that having more information does not automatically translate into better outcomes
Identify the different types of attending behavior when using nonverbal communication
– There are three important attending behaviors: – Making eye contact – Adjusting body position – Nonverbally encouraging or discouraging what the other says
– distinguishes one communication channel from another. • the ability of a channel to carry and convey subtle social and relational cues from sender to receiver
Explain how questions can be used to improve communication in negotiation, identifying its different types?
-– Manageable questions • cause attention or prepare the other person’s thinking for further questions:
– “May I ask you a question?” • getting information – “How much will this cost?” • generating thoughts – “Do you have any suggestions for improving this?” -– Unmanageable questions • cause difficulty – “Where did you get that dumb idea?” • give information – “Didn’t you know we couldn’t afford this?” • bring the discussion to a false conclusion
– “Don’t you think we have talked about this enough?”
Explain how listening can be used to improve communication in negotiation, identifying its different types?
1. Passive listening: Receiving the message while providing no feedback to the sender 2. Acknowledgment: Receivers nod their heads, maintain eye contact, or interject responses 3. Active listening: Receivers restate or paraphrase the sender’s message in their own language
Explain how role reversal can be used to improve communication in negotiation, identifying its different types?
– Negotiators understand the other party’s positions by actively arguing these positions until the other party is convinced that he or she is understood. – Role reversal is a useful tool for improving communication and the accurate understanding and appreciation of the other party’s position
As negotiations come to a close, what are the two key aspects of communication and negotiation that negotiators must attend to simultaneously?
• Avoiding fatal mistakes – Keep track of what
you expect to happen. – Guard yourself against self-serving expectations. – Review the lessons from feedback for similar decisions in the future.
• Achieving closure – Avoid surrendering important information needlessly – Refrain from making “dumb remarks”
Seeking power in negotiation usually arises from one of which two perceptions?
1. The negotiator believes he or she currently has less power than the other party.
2. The negotiator believes he or she needs more power than the other party to increase the probability of securing a desired outcome.
Negotiators employ tactics designed to create power equalization or minimize the other party’s ability to dominate the relationship.
Identify the five major types of sources of power that could be exercised.
1. Informational sources of power 2. Personal sources of power 3. Power based on position in an organization 4. Relationship-based sources of power 5. Contextual sources of power
Describe how information can be used as a source of power?
– Derived from the negotiator’s ability to assemble and organize data to support his or her position, arguments, or desired outcomes – A tool to challenge the other party’s position or desired outcomes, or to undermine the effectiveness of the other’s negotiating arguments. – Power derived from expertise is a special form of information power. Expert power is given to those who are seen as having achieved some level of command and mastery of a body of information.
Describe the different ideologies about power from a cognitive orientation perspective
1. the unitary frame- beliefs that society is an integrated who and that the interests of individuals and society are one (common to "communal" societies) 2. the radical frame- beliefs that society is in a continual clash of social, political, and class interests, and power is inherently and structurally imbalanced (Marxist individuals) 3. the pluralist frame - beliefs that power is distributed relatively equally across various groups (liberal democracies)
State the "relational" definition of power
Describe the concept of individual differences in "power motive."
the disposition of some people to have high needs to influence and control others and to seek out positions of power and authority
• Power grounded in the title, duties, and responsibilities of a job description and “level” within an organization hierarchy. • People can acquire legitimate power in several ways: at birth, election to a designated office, appointment or promotion. • It depends on the willingness of followers to acknowledge the legitimacy of the organizational structure and the system of rules and regulations that empowers its leaders.
define resource control power
• People who control resources have the capacity to give them to someone who will do what they want, and withhold them (or take them away) from someone who doesn’t do what they want.
Describe how tie strength, tie content and network structure affect power
– Tie strength • An indication of the strength or quality of relationships with others – Tie content • The resource that passes along the tie with the other person. The more the content, the stronger the relationship, and the more trust and respect created for each other. – Network structure • The overall set of relationships within a social system
How can centrality in network be determined?
The more central a node is in a network of exchanges and transactions, the more power the nodes occupant will have
How can criticality in network be determined?
a second source of network power is the criticality of the node
Identify and describe the different strategies that can be used to deal with others who have more power
• Never do an all-or-nothing deal • Make the other party smaller • Make yourself bigger • Build momentum through doing deals in sequence • Use the power of competition to leverage power • Constrain yourself • Good information is always a source of power • Ask many questions to gain more information • Do what you can to manage the process
• Are broadly applied social standards for what is right or wrong in a particular situation , or a process for setting those standards • Grow out of particular philosophies which – Define the nature of the world in which we live – Prescribe rules for living together
describe the four standards for evaluating strategies and tactics in business and negotiation?
a. End-result ethics: Choose a course of action on the basis of results I expect to achieve.
b. Duty Ethics: Choose a course of action on the basis of my duty to uphold appropriate rules and principles.
c. Social contract ethics: Choose a course of action on the basis of the norms, values, and strategy of my organization or community.
d. Personalistic ethics: Choose a course of action on the basis of my personal convictions.
Identify and define the six different types of ethical ambiguous negotiating tactics?
– Traditional competitive bargaining – Emotional manipulation – Misrepresentation – Bluffing – Misrepresentation to opponent’s network – Inappropriate information collection • The first two are likely to be used and are seen as appropriate and effective. The other four are generally seen as inappropriate and unethical in negotiation.
Identify and define the two types of deception that can occur in a negotiation?
– Omission – failing to disclose information that would benefit the other
– Commission – actually lying about the common-value issue
describe the process of analyzing a moral problem
– First, develop a complete understanding of the moral problem at hand. – Determine economic outcomes of potential courses of action – Consideration the legal requirements that bear on the situation – Assess the ethical obligations to other involved parties regarding what is “‘right’ and ‘just’ and ‘fair’” (ethical reasoning).
considering the categories of marginally ethical negotiating tactics, what is the difference between misrepresentation and misrepresentation to opponents networks?
misrepresentation of one’s true position to the other party, bluffs, and emotional manipulations—may be seen as ethically acceptable and within the rules. ?????
When are negotiators significantly more likely to see the marginally ethical tactics as appropriate?
? – Negotiators are more likely to see ethically ambiguous tactics as appropriate and to use them if they anticipate that the other’s expected motivation would be more competitive.
As a result of employing an unethical tactic, the negotiator will experience positive or negative consequences are based on:
• Effectiveness – whether the tactic is effective • Reactions of others – how the other person, constituencies, and audiences evaluate the tactic • Reactions of self – how the negotiator evaluates the tactic, feels about using the tactic
The use of unethical tactics may provoke what response from the "victim"?
Identify and describe the different rationalizations for unethical conduct
•The tactic was unavoidable • The tactic was harmless • The tactic will help to avoid negative consequences • The tactic will produce good consequences, or the tactic is altruistically motivated • “They had it coming,” or “They deserve it,” • “They were going to do it anyway, so I will do it first” • “He started it” • The tactic is fair or appropriate to the situation
What actions can a negotiator take to respond to the other party's use of deceptive tactics or "dirty tricks"?
• Ask probing questions • Phrase questions in different ways • Force the other party to lie or back off • Test the other party • “Call” the tactic • Ignore the tactic • Discuss what you see and offer to help the other party change to more honest behaviors • Respond in kind
Negotiators who are considering the use of deceptive tactics should ask themselves what three questions in order to evaluate the desirability of the tactic?
Describe transactional research
•
Current negotiation theory is based on transactional research :
• parties who don’t know each other, • don’t expect to deal with each other in the future, • are engaged in a market transaction over price and quantity.
How does context affect negotiation?
one major way that context affects negotiation is that people act within a relationship, and these relationships have a past, present, and future.
Describe the different characteristics of negotiations in a relationship context
In relationship negotiation, the resolution of simple distributive issues can have what effects on future decisions?
Describe how communal-sharing relationship affect negotiations.
Too long... • Are more cooperative and empathetic • Craft better quality agreements • Perform better on both decision making and motor tasks • Focus their attention on the other party’s outcomes as well as their own • Focus attention on the norms that develop about the way that they work together • Are more likely to share information with the other and less likely to use coercive tactics • Are more likely to use indirect communication about conflict issues, and develop a unique conflict structure • May be more likely to use compromise or problem solving strategies for resolving conflicts
What are three things that contribute to the level of trust one negotiator may have for another?
1. Individual’s chronic disposition toward trust 2. Situation factors 3. History of the relationship between the parties
Do many people approach a new relationship with an unknown party with remarkably high levels of trust? Explain
• Many people approach a new relationship with an unknown other party with remarkably high levels of trust • Trust tends to cue cooperative behavior • Individual motives also shape trust and expectations of the other’s behavior • Trustors , and those trusted, may focus on different things as trust is being built
Define reputation, how does it form, and how does it affect negotiations?
– Perceptual and highly subjective in nature – An individual can have a number of different, even conflicting, reputations, because he/she acts differently in different situations. – Shaped by past behavior – Influenced by an individual’s personal characteristics and accomplishments. – Develops over time; once developed, is hard to change. – Negative reputations are difficult to “repair”
What role does trust play in the negotiation?
• Distributive processes lead negotiators to see the neg. dialogue, and critical events in the dialogue, as largely about the nature of the negotiation task. • Trust increases the likelihood that negotiation will proceed on a favorable course over the life of a neg. • Face-to-face negotiation encourages greater trust development than negotiation online • Negotiators who are representing other’s interests, rather than their own interests, tend to behave in a less trusting way
Identify and define the different types of justice in a negotiation
– Distributive justice • The distribution of outcomes – Procedural justice • The process of determining outcomes – Interactional justice • How parties treat each other in one-to-one relationships – Systemic justice • How organizations appear to treat groups of individuals
How does an egocentric bias play out in judgments about fairness?
Identify and define the different tactics that can be used to repair a relationship
In what ways do multiparty negotiations differ from two-party deliberations?
1. Number of parties 2. Info and computational complexity 3. Social complexity 4. Procedural complexity 5. Strategic complexity
Summarize the five ways in which the complexity increases as three or more parties simultaneously engage in negotiation
Describe the consequences of multiparty negotiations evolving into a series of one-on-one negotiations
Name the characteristics of an effective in multiparty negotiations
Name the 3 key stages that characterize multilateral negotiations
• The prenegotiation stage – Characterized by many informal contacts among the parties • The formal negotiation stage – Structures a group discussion to achieve an effective and endorsed result • The agreement phase – Parties select among the alternatives on the table
How can members of coalitions exert greater strength in multiparty negotiations?
exist before negotiations begin or for coalitions to organized in anticipation of the meeting of all the parties.
Describe the different ways you could define the group member roles in the prenegotiation phase of multilateral negotiations
• a. Task roles : move the group along toward a decision • b . Relationship roles : manage and sustain good relationships between group members, and • c . Self-oriented roles : serve to bring attention to the individual group member, often at the expense of group effectiveness.
Describe how perceptual biases in multiparty negotiations affect negotiators
• In multiparty negotiations, perceptual biases are likely to affect negotiators by leading them to believe that: – they are better than others – Their options are better than others’ options – They are more likely to achieve their outcomes than others – They have more control over shaping the outcome than others
During the information management phase of the formal negotiation, what group norms can specifically undermine effective discussions?
Identify the different strategies that can be used to ensure consideration of all available information during the formal negotiation stage
– The Delphi technique • An initial questionnaire, sent to all parties, asking for input. Great way to share information. – Brainstorming • Define a problem and generate as many solutions as possible without criticizing any of them – Nominal group technique • Brainstormed list of solutions ranked, rated, or evaluated
Describe the reasons why an agenda can be an effective decision aid
– It establishes the issues that will be discussed – It defines how each issue is discussed (framed) – It sets the order in which issues are discussed – It introduce process issues (decision rules, discussion norms, member roles, discussion dynamics), and substantive issues – It assigns time limits to various items, thereby indicating their importance.
Schwartz suggests that four key problem-solving steps occur during the agreement phase. What are the four steps?
a. Select the best solution.
b. Develop an action plan: list key steps, objectives to be achieved at each step, the timing of each step, resources needed for each step, responsibility for completing the step.
c. Implement the action plan.
d. Evaluate outcomes and the process.
Describe the two overall contexts that have an influence on international negotiations
• Environmental context – Includes environmental forces that neither negotiator controls that influence the negotiation.
• Immediate context – Includes factors over which negotiators appear to have some control
Describe the environmental factors that make international negotiations more challenging than domestic negotiations
Describe the immediate factors that make international negotiations more challenging than domestic negotiations
The "culture-as-learned-behavior" approach to understanding the effects of culture concentrates on:
– the pragmatic approach concentrates on creating a catalogue of behaviors the foreign negotiator should expect.
The "culture-as-shared-values" approach to understanding the effects of culture concentrates on:
– Understanding central values and norms and then building a model for how these norms and values influence negotiations within that culture
Define the concepts of "culture as dialectic" and "culture in context"
Too long.. C. Culture as dialectic –Among their different values, all cultures contain dimensions or tensions that are called dialectics •Example: Judeo-Christian parables “too many cooks spoil the broth” and “two heads are better than one” offer conflicting guidance •This can explain variations within cultures
D. Culture in context –No human behavior is determined by a single cause –All behavior may be understood at many different levels simultaneously
– negotiation is determined by many different factors, one of which is culture.
What are the four dimensions that could be used to describe the important differences among cultures?
• Hofstede’s Model of Cultural Dimensions : – Individualism/collectivism – Power distance – Career success/quality of life – Uncertainty avoidance
What are the 10 different ways that culture can influence negotiations?
-definition of negotiation, negotiation opportunity, selection of negotiators, protocol, communication, time sensitivity, risk propensity, groups versus individuals emphasis, nature of agreements, emotionalism
How does the nature of agreements vary between cultures?
• Cultural differences in how to close an agreement and what exactly that agreement means can lead to confusion and misunderstandings.
What is the danger in modifying the negotiators approach to match the approach of the other negotiator?
What factors indicate that negotiators should not make large modifications to their approach when they negotiate across borders?
??• During preparation, negotiators should concentrate on understanding three things: • – Their own biases, strengths, and weaknesses; – – The other negotiator as an individual; – – The other negotiator’s cultural context.
Which culturally responsive strategies a negotiator may be able to choose among when negotiating with someone from another culture? How do they depend on the level of familiarity with the other culture?
Name the 10 best practices for negotiators
1. Be prepared, 2. Diagnose the fundamental structure of the negotiation 3. 3. Identify and work the best alternative to a negotiated agreement (BATNA) 4. Be willing to walk away 5. Master the key paradoxes of negotiation 6. Remember the intangibles 7. Actively manage coalitions 8. Savor and protect your reputation 9. 9. Remember that rationality and fairness are relative 10. Continue to learn from your experience
Why is preparation so important for negotiators?
• Preparation gives you the ability to: – Analyze the other party’s offers more effectively and efficiently, and to achieve your negotiation goals. – Understand and articulate your goals and interests – Understand the other party’s communication in order to find an agreement that meets the needs of both parties. – Set high but achievable aspirations for negotiation – Adjust promptly and effectively as the negotiation proceeds.
Why do negotiators need to diagnose the fundamental structure of the negotiation?
– Make conscious decisions about the nature of the negotiation: is it distributive or integrative or blend of the two – Choose strategies and tactics accordingly – Many negotiations will consist of a blend of both and there will be distributive and integrative phases. – There are also times when accommodation, avoidance, and compromise may be appropriate strategies.
What is BATNA and why is it an important source of power in a negotiation?
. best alternative to a negotiated agreement (BATNA) – Know your BATNA and consciously work to improve – Be aware of the other negotiator’s BATNA and identify how it compares to what you are offering. – There are three things negotiators should do with respect to the other negotiator’s BATNA: • Monitor it carefully in order to retain your competitive advantage. • Remind the other negotiator of the advantages your offer relative to his/her BATNA; • Suggest that the other negotiator’s BATNA may not be as strong as he or she thinks it is.
Name the key paradoxes of negotiation
I. Claiming value versus creating value
II. Sticking by your principles versus being resilient to the flow
III. Sticking with the strategy versus opportunistic pursuit of new options
IV. Facing the dilemma of honesty: honest and open versus closed and opaque
V. Facing the dilemma of trust: trust versus distrust
Explain the dilemma of honesty
Facing the dilemma of honesty: honest and open
versus closed and opaque
– The challenge of this paradox is deciding how much information to reveal and how much to conceal, both for pragmatic and ethical reasons.
Explain the dilemma of trust
Facing the dilemma of trust: trust versus distrust
– Trust can be built by being honest and sharing information with the other side, which hopefully will lead to reciprocal trust and credible disclosure by the other side.
Name two or more ways to discover intangibles that might be affecting the other party in a negotiation
• ask questions. • take an observer or listener with you to the negotiation.
Name the three types of coalitions a negotiator should recognize and their potential effects
• Coalitions against you, • Coalitions that support you, and • Loose, undefined coalitions that may materialize either for or against you.
Why do negotiators need to remember that rationality and fairness are relative
– People tend to view the world in a self-serving manner and define the “rational” thing to do or a “fair” outcome or process in a way that benefits themselves.
Name the different ways to establish and protect your reputation
– Start negotiation with a positive reputation – Shape your reputation by acting in a consistent and fair manner. – Seek feedback from others about the way you are perceived and use that information to strengthen your credibility and trustworthiness in the marketplace.
What are the 3 things that negotiators can do to manage the perceptions of fairness and rationality proactively?
i. Question your perceptions of fairness and ground them in clear principles ii. Find external benchmarks of fair outcomes iii. Engage in dialogue to reach consensus on fairness