According to research on interpersonal perception the formation of friendships is associated with

Inhaltsverzeichnis Show

Communication as social perception
Communication as social perception
Effects of interpersonal perception
Effects of interpersonal perception
The concept of interpersonal perception.
What do you understand by the term interpersonal perception?
Which psychologist is primarily associated with research on obedience?
Which of the following best describes group polarization?
Which of the following is the best example of scapegoating?

The term "social perception" was first introduced by J. Bruner in 1947 and was understood as the social determination of perceptual processes.

Social perception includes interpersonal perception (perception of a person by a person), which consists of the perception of external signs of a person, their correlation with personal qualities, interpretation and prediction of future actions. As a synonym in domestic psychology, the expression “knowledge of another person” is often used, says A. A. Bodalev. The use of such an expression is justified by the inclusion in the process of perception of another of his behavioral characteristics, the formation of ideas about the intentions, abilities, attitudes of the perceived, etc.

The process of social perception includes two sides: subjective (the subject of perception is the person who perceives) and objective (the object of perception is the person who is perceived). In the course of interaction and communication, social perception becomes mutual. At the same time, mutual knowledge is aimed primarily at understanding those qualities of a partner that are most significant for the participants in communication at a given time.

Difference of social perception: social objects are not passive and indifferent in relation to the subject of perception. Social images always have semantic and evaluative characteristics. The interpretation of another person or group depends on the previous social experience of the subject, on the behavior of the object, on the system of value orientations of the perceiver, and other factors.

The subject of perception can be either an individual or a group. If an individual acts as a subject, then he can perceive:

1) another individual belonging to his group;

2) another individual belonging to a foreign group;

3) your group;

4) someone else's group.

If the group acts as the subject of perception, then, according to G. M. Andreeva, the following is added:

1) the group's perception of its own member;

2) perception by a group of a representative of another group;

3) the group's perception of itself;

4) perception by the group as a whole of another group.

In groups, individual ideas of people about each other are framed in group personality assessments, which act in the process of communication in the form of public opinion.

MECHANISMS OF MUTUAL UNDERSTANDING IN THE PROCESS OF COMMUNICATION.

The mechanisms of social perception are the ways in which people interpret, understand and evaluate another person. The most common are:

empathy, attachment, causal attribution, identification, social reflection.

Empathy - understanding the emotional state of another person, understanding his emotions, feelings, experiences.

Attarction is a special form of perception and cognition of another person, based on the formation of a stable positive feeling towards him. It is considered in three aspects: the process of forming the attractiveness of another person; the result of this process; relationship quality. It exists at the level of individual-selective interpersonal relations, characterized by the mutual attachment of their subjects. It is also important in business communication, which is manifested in the expression of goodwill towards the client.

Causal attribution is the process of attributing to another person the reasons for his behavior when there is no information about these reasons. Such an attribution is made on the principle of analogy: either on the basis of the similarity of the behavior of the object of perception with the behavior of some familiar person or famous person, or on the basis of an analysis of one's own motives assumed in such a situation.

At the same time, if negative features are attributed to the object, then a person evaluates himself, as a rule, from the positive side.

The nature of attributions depends on whether the subject is a participant in an event or its observer. G. Kelly identified three types of attribution: personal (when the reason is attributed to the person who performs the act), stimulus (when the reason is attributed to the object to which the action is directed) and circumstantial (when the reason is attributed to circumstances). It has been established that if the subject speaks from the position of an observer, then he often uses personal attribution, if from the position of a participant, then circumstantial.

Identification - identifying yourself with another, one of the easiest ways to understand another person is to liken yourself to him. In contrast to empathy, here, to a greater extent, intellectual identification occurs, the results of which are the more successful, the more accurately the observer has determined the intellectual level of the one whom he perceives.

Social reflection - understanding by the subject of his own individual characteristics and how they manifest themselves in external behavior; awareness of how it is perceived by other people. Often people have a distorted image of themselves. This applies not only to the social manifestations of the internal state, but even the external appearance.

The content of interpersonal perception depends on the characteristics of both the subject and the object of perception. It has been experimentally established that some people are more likely to pay attention to physical features, others to psychological characteristics that depend on the previous assessment of objects of perception. The subjective characteristics of the object of perception can be distorted by some socio-psychological effects of perception: the effect of the first impression (attitude), the halo effect, the effect of primacy and novelty, the effect of stereotyping. These distortions are objective in nature and require certain efforts of the perceiving person to overcome them.

According to A. A. Bodalev, the installation effect forms the first impression of a stranger, which then can take on the character of a stable one. Experiments have shown that at the first meeting, as a rule, they pay attention to appearance, speech, non-verbal reactions.

The halo effect is the tendency to transfer previously received positive or negative information about a person to his real perception.

The effect of primacy and novelty is the significance of the order in which information about a person is presented; earlier information is characterized as primary, later - as new. In the case of perception of an unfamiliar person, the primacy effect is triggered, while in the perception of a familiar person, the effect of novelty is triggered.

Stereotyping is a stable image of a phenomenon or person, which is used as a known abbreviation when interacting with this phenomenon. The term was introduced by W. Lippmann in 1922, who saw in this phenomenon only a false and inaccurate representation used by propaganda. Often there is a stereotype associated with a person's group affiliation, for example, to any profession.

Stereotyping can result in:

1) simplification of the process of knowing another person;

2) the emergence of prejudice. If the past experience was negative, then the person associated with this experience will, with a new perception, cause hostility. Knowing about the effects of perception, a person can use this knowledge for his own purposes, creating a positive image among others - a perceived and transmitted image of a person. The conditions for the accepted image are: orientation towards socially approved forms of behavior corresponding to social control, and orientation towards the middle class according to social stratification. There are three levels of image: biological (gender, age, health, etc.), psychological (personal qualities, intelligence, emotional state, etc.), social (rumors, gossip).

The concept of "social perception" is integrative. The mechanisms of social perception include a number of phenomena: from knowing oneself in the process of communication, trying to understand the state, mood of the interlocutor, putting oneself in his place to forming an impression of the perceived person based on stereotypes developed, attributing causes and motives to his behavior, as well as developing one’s own behavior strategies.

The study of perception shows that a number of universal psychological mechanisms can be identified that ensure the very process of perceiving and evaluating another person and allowing the transition from externally perceived to assessment, attitude and forecast.

Since a person always enters into communication as a person, to the extent that he is perceived by another person - a communication partner - also as a person. On the basis of the external side of behavior, we, as it were, “read” another person, decipher the meaning of his external data.

The impressions that arise in this case play an important regulatory role in the process of communication. Firstly, because, knowing the other, the knowing individual himself is formed. Secondly, because the success of organizing concerted actions with him depends on the degree of accuracy of "reading" another person.

The idea of another person is closely related to the level of one's own self-consciousness. This connection is twofold: on the one hand, the richness of ideas about oneself determines the richness of ideas about another person, on the other hand, the more fully the other person is revealed (in more and deeper characteristics), the more complete the idea of oneself becomes. . “A person becomes for himself what he is in himself through what he is for others.”

A similar idea was expressed by Mead, who introduced the image of the "generalized other" into his analysis of interaction.

If we apply this reasoning to a specific situation of communication, then we can say that the idea of oneself through the idea of another is necessarily formed, provided that this “other” is not given in the abstract, but within the framework of a fairly broad social activity that includes interaction with him. The individual “corresponds” himself with another not in general, but primarily by refracting this correlation in the development of joint solutions. In the course of knowing another person, several processes are simultaneously carried out: an emotional assessment of this other, and an attempt to understand the structure of his actions, and a strategy based on this for changing his behavior, and building a strategy for his own behavior.

However, at least two people are involved in these processes, and each of them is an active subject. Consequently, comparing oneself with another is carried out, as it were, from two sides: each of the partners likens himself to another.

This means that when building an interaction strategy, everyone has to take into account not only the needs, motives, attitudes of the other, but also how this other understands our needs, motives, attitudes. All this leads to the fact that the analysis of self-awareness through another includes two sides: identification and reflection.

Descriptively, empathy is also defined as a special way of understanding another person. Empathy is commonly understood as the comprehension of the emotional states of another person in the form of empathy, penetration into his subjective world. This or that level of empathy is a professionally necessary quality for all specialists whose work is directly related to people.

The term "empathy" first appeared in the English dictionary in 1912 and was close to the concept of "sympathy". The term was first used by Lipps in 1885 in connection with the psychological theory of the impact of art. One of the earliest definitions of empathy can be found in the work of Z. Freud “Wit and its relation to the unconscious”: “We take into account the mental state of the patient, put ourselves in this state and try to understand it by comparing it with our own.”

There is a wide range of manifestations of empathy. At one pole is the position of complete immersion in the world of feelings of a communication partner. This means not just knowing the emotional state of a person, but the experience of his feelings, empathy. Such empathy is called affective or emotional. The other pole takes the position of a more abstract, objective understanding of the experiences of a communication partner without significant emotional involvement in them. In this regard, the following levels of empathy are distinguished: empathy (when a person experiences emotions that are completely identical to those observed), sympathy (an emotional response, an urge to help another), sympathy (a warm, friendly attitude towards other people).

The mechanism of empathy includes the ability to put oneself in the place of another, to look at things from his point of view, but this does not necessarily mean identification with this other person. With empathy, the partner's line of behavior is taken into account, the subject treats him with sympathy, but interpersonal relationships with him are built based on the strategy of his line of behavior.

Only here we mean not a rational understanding of the problems of another person, but rather the desire to emotionally respond to his problems. Empathy is opposed to understanding in the strict sense of the word, the term is used in this case only metaphorically: empathy is affective "understanding". Its emotional nature is manifested precisely in the fact that the situation of another person, a communication partner, is not so much “thought out” as “felt”.

Empathic understanding is not the result of intellectual effort. Many experts consider empathy to be an innate property that is genetically determined. The life experience of the individual can only strengthen or weaken it. Empathy depends on the availability and richness of life experience, the accuracy of perception, the ability to tune in, listening to the interlocutor, on the same emotional wave with him.

Various training methods help to increase empathic abilities (subject to their innate presence), develop the ability to more effectively apply empathy in personal and professional communication.

The process of understanding each other is complicated by the phenomenon of reflection. In contrast to the philosophical use of the term, in social psychology, reflection is understood as the awareness by the acting individual of how he is perceived by his communication partner. This is no longer just knowledge or understanding of the other, but knowledge of how the other understands me, a kind of double process of mirror reflections of each other, “a deep, consistent mutual reflection, the content of which is the reproduction of the inner world of the interaction partner, and in this inner world, in turn, reflects the inner world of the first researcher.

People, getting to know each other, are not limited to obtaining information through observation. They strive to find out the reasons for the behavior of communication partners and to find out their personal qualities. But since information about a person obtained as a result of observation is most often insufficient for reliable conclusions, the observer begins to attribute probabilistic causes of behavior and character traits of the personality of the communication partner. This causal interpretation of the behavior of the observed individual can significantly affect the observer himself.

Thus, causal attribution is understood as the interpretation by the subject of interpersonal perception of the causes and motives of the behavior of other people, obtained on the basis of direct observation, analysis of the results of activities, and other things by attributing to a person, a group of people properties, characteristics that did not fall into the field of perception and, as it were, are conjectured by them. .

In conditions of information deficiency, they begin to attribute to each other both the causes of behavior, and sometimes the patterns of behavior themselves or some more general characteristics. Attribution is carried out either on the basis of the similarity of the perceived person's behavior with some other pattern that was in the past experience of the subject of perception, or on the basis of an analysis of one's own motives, assumed in a similar situation. But, one way or another, a whole system of ways of such attribution (attribution) arises. Thus, the interpretation of one's own and other people's behavior by attributing (reasons, motives, feelings, etc.) is an integral part of interpersonal perception and cognition.

The measure and degree of attribution in the process of interpersonal perception depends on two indicators, namely the degree:

1. the uniqueness or typicality of an act (meaning the fact that typical behavior is behavior prescribed by role models, and therefore it is easier to unambiguously interpret; on the contrary, unique behavior allows for many different interpretations and, therefore, gives scope for attributing its causes and characteristics );

2. its social desirability or undesirability (socially “desirable” means behavior that corresponds to social and cultural norms and therefore is relatively easily and unambiguously explained, however, if such norms are violated, the range of possible explanations expands significantly).

An interesting attempt to construct a theory of causal attribution belongs to G. Kelly. He showed how a person searches for reasons to explain the behavior of another person. In general terms, the answer sounds like this: every person has some a priori causal representations and causal expectations.

A causal scheme is a kind of general concept of a given person about the possible interactions of various causes, about what actions, in principle, these causes produce. It is based on three principles:

1 the principle of depreciation, when the role of the main cause of the event is underestimated due to the overestimation of other causes;

2 the principle of amplification, when the role of a particular cause in an event is exaggerated;

3 the principle of systematic distortion, when there are constant deviations from the rules of formal logic in explaining the causes of people's behavior.

In other words, each person has a system of schemes of causality, and every time the search for reasons explaining "alien" behavior, one way or another, fits into one of these existing schemes. The repertoire of causal schemes that each person owns is quite extensive. The question is which of the causal schemes will work in each particular case.

G. Kelly revealed that, depending on whether the subject of perception is himself a participant in an event or its observer, he can mainly choose one of three types of attribution:

1 personal attribution, when the reason is attributed personally to the person committing the act;

2 object attribution, when the cause is attributed to the object to which the action is directed;

3 circumstantial attribution, when the cause of an occurring event is attributed to circumstances.

The general pattern is that, in proportion to the significance of the event, the subjects tend to move from circumstantial and object attribution to personal attribution (that is, to look for the cause of what happened in the conscious actions of a particular person).

Based on the study of the problems associated with causal attribution, the researchers concluded that attributive processes constitute the main content of interpersonal perception. It is indicative that some people are more inclined to fix physical traits in the process of interpersonal perception (in this case, the scope of “attribution” is significantly reduced), while others perceive predominantly the psychological traits of the character of those around them. In the latter case, a wide scope for attribution opens up.

In particular, the physical appearance of a person is understood as a set of visually perceived data characterizing his appearance. Its elements are decisive in appearance. An element of appearance is any part of a person's external appearance that is identified in the process of observation (study). These are individual anatomical organs (head, arm, etc.), and entire areas of the body (chest, back), and individual parts of the whole (forehead, eyes, lips, and so on).

Signs of physical appearance characterize the external structure of the human body, its parts and covers; determine sex, age, height, physique. Particular attention, of course, is paid to the face of a person, as the most individualizing personality in its visual perception.

Under the design of appearance, it is customary to understand the following: makeup, hairstyle, clothes, shoes, headdress, shoes, and so on.

Expressive behavior is understood as “widely diffused peripheral changes, covering the whole organism with emotions; capturing the system of muscles of the face, the whole body, they manifest themselves in the so-called expressive movements, expressed in facial expressions (expressive facial movements), pantomime (expressive movements of the whole body) and “vocal facial expressions” (expression of emotions in intonation and timbre of the voice).

Back in the forties of our century, the outstanding Soviet psychologist S.L. Rubinstein gave answers to many questions of the psychology of expressive behavior. Natural and social, natural and historical in expressive behavior, as everywhere in man, form one indivisible unity. This is not just an external empty accompaniment of emotions, but an external form of existence and manifestation. Expressive movements in the external reveal the internal, create the image of the character. Expressive movements express not only an already formed experience, but they themselves can form it. Public fixation of the forms and meanings of expressive behavior creates the possibility of conventional expressive movements. Expressive movements to a certain extent replace speech, they are a means of communication and influence.

Expressed by S.L. Rubinstein's provisions on the nature, content and functions of expressive behavior find concrete development in modern studies of both Soviet and foreign authors.

Such a function of expressive movements as the creation of an "image of the character" is of particular importance in the context of social perception. Here, complex psychological formations, dynamically expressed in the behavior and appearance of a person, are considered as a signal complex that informs another person about the mental processes and states of his communication partner. Each complex simultaneously performs both informative and regulatory functions. In other words, the expression as an indicator, signal, influence, regulator of activity (including communication) acts as a whole. Expressive movements are considered as carriers of an independent message in their cognitive and expressive functions. Due to their characteristic function of a symptom (expression), an indicator of the internal state of a living being (this is noted in a number of definitions of expressive movements and is the subject of study in the field of the emotional sphere of personality, pathopsychology, psychodiagnostics), in a situation of communication they are simultaneously a sign of a higher level, they carry out communicative function and guide the actions of partners.

So, expressive movements perform informative and regulatory functions in the process of communication, they are a kind of language of communication.

Ways of exchanging glances at the time of the conversation, organizing visual contact in each individual case - the time of fixing the gaze on the partner, the frequency of fixation - are widely used in the study of the so-called atmosphere of intimacy in interpersonal communication, the mutual attitudes of communicating persons.

Body movements, hand gestures, facial expressions are also attributed to the system of paralinguistic phenomena.

It is known that numerous characteristics of a person's voice create his image, contribute to the recognition of his states, the identification of mental: individuality. The main load in the process of perception of human voice changes falls on the acoustic system of communicating partners. Thus, the non-verbal behavior of a person is polyfunctional.

In general, the study of social perception shows that a number of universal psychological mechanisms can be distinguished, such as empathy, "social reflection" and causal attribution, which provide the very process of perceiving and evaluating another person and allowing the transition from externally perceived to assessment, attitude and forecast. .

Among the elements of appearance that are of great importance when people perceive each other, it is customary to single out the following: physical appearance, appearance and expressive behavior.

In the process of communication, there must be mutual understanding between the participants in this process. Mutual understanding itself can take two forms: 1) understanding the motives, goals, attitudes of partners in interaction; 2) not only understanding, but also acceptance, sharing of these goals, motives, attitudes. In the second case, understanding allows not only to coordinate actions, but also to establish a special kind of relationship (intimacy, affection), expressed in feelings of friendship, sympathy, love. In the course of knowing another person, several processes are simultaneously carried out: an emotional assessment of another, an attempt to understand the motives of his actions, based on this strategy.

the ability to change his behavior, build a strategy for his own behavior, etc. However, these processes involve at least two people, and each of them is an active subject. Consequently, the comparison of oneself with another is carried out, as it were, from two sides: each of the partners likens himself to the other. This means that when building an interaction strategy, everyone has to take into account not only the needs, motives, attitudes of the other, but also how this other understands the needs, motives, attitudes of his interlocutor. In other words, the perception of a person by a person involves special processes: identification and reflection. The term "identification" literally means likening to another. This is one of the easiest ways to understand another person. In real situations of interaction, people use such a technique when an assumption about the internal state of a communication partner is based on an attempt to put oneself in his place. And in this regard, identification acts as one of the mechanisms of cognition and understanding of another person. Close in meaning to identification is another mechanism for knowing the other - empathy. Unlike identification, in empathy there is not a rational understanding of the problems of another person, but rather the desire to emotionally respond to his problems. Empathy is the emotional understanding of another. The emotional nature of empathy is manifested in the fact that the situation of another person, a communication partner, is not so much "thought out" as "felt". When characterizing communication as cognition, another mechanism is of particular importance - reflection. In social psychology

reflection is understood as an individual's awareness of how he is perceived by a communication partner. It is no longer just knowing the other or understanding him, but also knowing how this other understands you. In the process of perception and understanding of a person by a person, an important role is played by attitudes that lead to the emergence of various socio-psychological effects. Three of them have been studied the most: the halo effect, the novelty (or primacy) effect, and the stereotyping effect. The halo effect lies in the fact that the information received about a person is “read” in a certain way, it is superimposed on the idea of him that was created in advance. The previously developed representation plays the role of a halo that makes it difficult to see the real features and

phenomena of the object of perception. The halo effect is clearly manifested in the formation of the first impression of a person: a general favorable impression of him leads to positive assessments of his unknown qualities. Conversely, a general unfavorable impression contributes to the predominance of negative assessments. In psychology, it has been established that the halo effect is most pronounced when the perceiver has minimal information about the object of perception, and also when judgments concern moral qualities.

The effects of primacy and novelty are closely related to this effect. Both of them relate to the importance of a certain order of presenting information about a person to form an idea about him. The primacy effect is manifested in the fact that when perceiving a stranger, the information about him that was presented earlier prevails. On the contrary, in situations of perception of a familiar person, the effect of novelty operates, which consists in the fact that the latest, i.e. newer, information is the most significant.

In a broader sense, all these effects can be considered as manifestations of a special process that accompanies the perception of a person by a person - the phenomenon of stereotyping. A stereotype is a certain stable image of a phenomenon or person that is used in communication as a means of "reducing" the process of recognition. Stereotypes in communication have a specific origin and meaning. As a rule, they arise in conditions of limited past experience, with the desire to draw conclusions on the basis of limited information. Stereotyping in the process of people knowing each other can lead to two different consequences. In the first case, this leads to a certain simplification of the process of knowing another person. In this case, the stereotype does not necessarily carry an evaluative load: there is no “shift” in the perception of another person towards his emotional acceptance or rejection. What remains is simply a simplified approach, which, although it does not contribute to the accuracy of constructing the image of the other, often forces us to replace it with a stamp, but nevertheless, in a certain sense, it is necessary, since it helps to shorten the process of cognition.

In the second case, stereotyping leads to prejudice. If the judgment is based on past experience, and this experience was negative, any new perception of a representative of the same group is colored by hostility.

Prejudices are especially negatively manifested in life, when they can cause serious harm to the relationship of people with each other. Ethnic stereotypes are especially common, when based on limited information about individual representatives of any ethnic groups, biased conclusions are drawn about the entire group.

Methods of influence in the process of communication

Communication includes certain ways of influencing individuals on each other; the main ones are infection, suggestion, imitation.

Contagion is an unconscious, involuntary exposure of an individual to certain mental states. Infection acts as a form of spontaneously manifested internal mechanism of human behavior. The mechanism of socio-psychological infection is reduced to the effect of multiple mutual amplification of the emotional influences of people communicating with each other.

A special situation in which the impact through infection is enhanced is the situation of panic. Panic occurs in the mass of people as a certain emotional state. The immediate cause of panic is the appearance of some news that can cause a kind of shock.

Suggestion is a purposeful, unreasoned influence of one person on another or on a group. When suggesting, an impact is made on another, based on an uncritical perception of a message or information. Unlike infection, which is usually non-verbal in nature (dances, games, music, emotions, etc.), suggestion, on the contrary, is verbal in nature, that is, it is carried out through a verbal message. With particular force, suggestion acts on impressionable people who, at the same time, do not have a sufficiently developed ability for independent logical thinking, who do not have firm life principles and convictions, and who are unsure of themselves. Imitation as a way of influence is manifested in following an example, a model through its reproduction. Imitation is of particular importance in the process of human mental development.

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1. The concept and types of social perception. Specifics of the analysis of perceptual processes in social psychology.

2. Effects, phenomena and mechanisms of interpersonal perception.

Mechanisms:

groups to the object of perception.

Effects of stereotyping:

Sequence Effects:

Interaction – This is a side of communication, reflecting the mental processes of human interaction.

Social functions of interaction - organizing (managing), regulating , evaluating, stabilizing and educating.

The last function of interaction is associated with the possibility of a positive influence on the individual (for example, the influence of the leader of the group on the individual).

Communication as social perception

social perception – this is a socio-psychological process of establishing contacts between people, realized through the perception and understanding of each other by people.

Perceptual side includes the basic laws of social perception:
1) "Halo effect" (first impression) - the formation of an evaluative impression of a person in conditions of lack of information; formation of positive or negative partiality of the personality;
2) the effect of "freshness" - an overestimated value of the latest events in time;
3) "projection effect" - the cognizing subject "puts" his states into another person, attributing to her features that in reality the assessed person may not have;
4) "the effect of personification of friends and foes" - this is a benevolent assessment of the personal qualities of a communication partner from one's own group and a negative perception of a communication partner from a foreign group; and etc.

The perceptual side of communication is focused on highlighting:
1) the physical appearance of a person: anatomical features, body type, gender, age, race;
2) functional features: face, facial expressions, gestures, body movements, gait, posture, voice, speech;
3) cultural characteristics (social status appearance): hairstyle, clothing, jewelry, bags, jewelry, etc.

The most important mental structure for the implementation of social perception in communication is its psychological mechanisms - identification, reflection, stereotyping.

1.Identification- a psychological mechanism for likening the personality of a communication partner to oneself (for example, “husband and wife are one Satan”).

2. Reflection – the psychological mechanism of social perception, expressing the individual's awareness of how she herself is perceived by the communication partner (for example, "I know what you think of me").

Stereotyping – a procedure for simplified perception and understanding of reality through the use of stereotypes (for example, “there is power, no mind is needed”).

Stereotyping in social perception- this is a psychological mechanism for simplified perception and understanding of each other by people by bringing them under a standardized image (stereotype).

Its varieties include: halo effect, that is, a rough generalization, an assessment in black and white colors; the effect of the central trend, that is, the desire to average ("round") the estimates of the observed processes and phenomena.

Stereotypes are a tool of "rough superstructure" that allows a person to "save" psychological resources and time. However, with more detailed, deep communication, the social stereotype should give way to mechanisms of more “fine tuning” (identification, reflection, attraction, etc.).

- see above).

Literature

Porter E. Michael Competitive Strategy: Methods of Analysis and Competitors / Translated from English. – M.: Alpina Business Books, 2005. – 454 p.

Atvater I. I'm listening to you: advice to the leader. M., 1984.

Gisbert B. Negotiation guide. M., 1996.

Daniel D. Overcoming differences. SPb., 1994.

Carnegie D. How to win friends and influence people. M., 1989.

Cornelius X., Fair Sh. Everyone Can Win: How to Resolve Conflicts.

Coren L., Goodman P. The Art of Bargaining, or All About Negotiations. Minsk, 1995.

Labunskaya V. A. Non-verbal behavior.

Rostov n / D., 1986.

Predrag M. How to conduct business conversations. M., 1983.

Rogers E., Agarwala-Rogers R. Communication in organizations. M, 1980.

Gozman L.Ya. Psychology of emotional relations. — M.: MSU, 1987.

Andreeva G.M. Psychology of social cognition: attributive processes.

- M .: Aspect Press.

Rubinshtein S.L. Principles and ways of development of psychology. - M., 1960.

Site search:

1. The concept and types of social perception.

Specifics of the analysis of perceptual processes in social psychology.

Social perception is a perception aimed at creating an idea about oneself, other people, social groups and social phenomena.

The specificity of the analysis of perceptual processes lies in the fact that a person's impression of another person/group is influenced by many different factors: psycho-physiological indicators, various psychological characteristics of the subject of perception, as well as the norms of public opinion and morality.

Specifically, in social psychology, the study of perceptual special emphasis is placed on the belonging of the subject and object of perception to any social group; thus, social psychology considers perception from the point of view of belonging of the subject and object of perception to different social. groups.

2. Effects, phenomena and mechanisms of interpersonal perception.

Mechanisms:

Reflection - self-perception

Identification is the attribution of the qualities of another person or social.

groups to the object of perception.

Causal attribution is a phenomenon of interpersonal perception. It consists in interpreting, attributing the causes of the actions of another person in the conditions of a lack of information about the real causes of his actions.

Phenomena and effects (some inaccuracies/mistakes/peculiarities of perception):

Effects of stereotyping:

Halo effect (halo effect, halo or horn effect) - a general favorable or unfavorable opinion about a person is transferred to his unknown features.

Sequence Effects:

The effect of primacy (the effect of the first impression, the effect of acquaintance) - the first information is overestimated in relation to the next.

The effect of novelty - new information about the unexpected behavior of a well-known, close person is given more importance than all the information received about him earlier.

Role effect - behavior determined by role functions is taken as a personality trait.

The effect of presence - the better a person owns something, the better he does it in front of others than in solitude.

Advance effect - the lack of previously attributed non-existent virtues leads to disappointment.

The effect of condescension - the leader exaggerates the positive features of his subordinates and underestimates the negative ones (typical for a leader of a conniving and, to some extent, democratic style).

The effect of hyper exactingness - the leader exaggerates the negative traits of subordinates and underestimates the positive ones (typical for an authoritarian style leader).

The effect of physiognomic reduction - a conclusion about the presence of a psychological characteristic is made on the basis of appearance features.

Beauty effect - more positive traits are attributed to a more attractive person.

The effect of expectation - expecting a certain reaction from a person, we provoke him to it.

Intra-group favoritism - "their own" seem better.

The effect of negative asymmetry of initial self-esteem - over time there is a tendency towards the opposite intra-group favoritism.

Presumption of reciprocity - a person believes that the "other" treats him the way he treats the "other".

The phenomenon of the assumption of similarity - a person believes that "their" relate to other people in the same way as he does.

Projection effect - a person comes from the fact that others have the same qualities as him.

The phenomenon of ignoring the informational value of what did not happen - information about what could have happened, but did not happen, is ignored.

Of the phenomena and effects, most likely only a few will be asked; in the lecture we were told about the installation effect, the first impression effect, the halo effect, the primacy effect, the novelty effect, stereotyping.

3. Casual attribution, types and errors of casual attribution.

The phenomenon of causal attribution consists in interpreting, attributing the causes of the actions of another person in the absence of information about the real causes of his actions.

The measure and degree of attribution depend on two indicators:

1. correspondence of an act to role expectations - the greater the correspondence, the less the lack of information, therefore, the degree of attribution will be less;

2. conformity of action to cultural norms.

Types of casual attribution:

Personal attribution (the reason is attributed to the person performing the action);

Object attribution (the reason is attributed to the object to which the act is directed);

Circumstantial attribution (the cause is attributed to circumstances).

Casual attribution errors:

Fundamental attribution error - when interpreting behavior, the role of the situation is underestimated and the role of the individual is overestimated.

Social perception is a figurative perception by a person of himself, other people and social phenomena of the surrounding world. The image exists at the level of feelings (sensations, perceptions, ideas) and at the level of thinking (concepts, judgments, conclusions).
The term "social perception" was first introduced by J. Bruner in 1947 and was understood as the social determination of perceptual processes.
Social perception includes interpersonal perception (perception of a person by a person), which consists of the perception of external signs of a person, their correlation with personal qualities, interpretation and prediction of future actions.

As a synonym in domestic psychology, the expression “knowledge of another person” is often used, says A. A. Bodalev.

Effects of interpersonal perception

The use of such an expression is justified by the inclusion in the process of perception of another of his behavioral characteristics, the formation of ideas about the intentions, abilities, attitudes of the perceived, etc.

d.
The process of social perception includes two sides: subjective (the subject of perception is the person who perceives) and objective (the object of perception is the person who is perceived). In the course of interaction and communication, social perception becomes mutual. At the same time, mutual knowledge is aimed primarily at understanding those qualities of a partner that are most significant for the participants in communication at a given time.
Difference of social perception: social objects are not passive and indifferent in relation to the subject of perception.

Social images always have semantic and evaluative characteristics. The interpretation of another person or group depends on the previous social experience of the subject, on the behavior of the object, on the system of value orientations of the perceiver, and other factors.
The subject of perception can be either an individual or a group.

If an individual acts as a subject, then he can perceive:
1) another individual belonging to his group; 2) another individual belonging to a foreign group; 3) your group; 4) someone else's group.
If the group acts as the subject of perception, then, according to G. M. Andreeva, the following is added: 1) the perception by the group of its own member; 2) perception by a group of a representative of another group; 3) the group's perception of itself; 4) perception by the group as a whole of another group.

In groups, individual ideas of people about each other are framed in group personality assessments, which act in the process of communication in the form of public opinion.

1) mech projection; 2) effect of contrast representation; 3) halo effect; 4) effect of primacy (1st impression); 5) the effect of stereotyping.

The halo effect consists in the formation of a specific attitude towards the perceived through the directed attribution of certain qualities to it: the information received about someone is categorized in a certain way, namely, it is superimposed on the image that has already been created earlier. The halo effect is manifested in the fact that a general favorable impression leads to positive assessments and unknown quality in the perceived and, conversely, a general unfavorable impression contributes to the predominance of negative assessments.

The halo effect is most clearly manifested when the perceiver has minimal information about the O-those of perception, and also when the judgments concern moral qualities.

The effect of primacy concerns the importance of a certain order of presenting information about a person to form an idea about him. The effect of stereotyping. A stereotype is a certain stable image of a phenomenon or person. The stereotype arises on the basis of rather limited past experience, as a result of the desire to build conclusions on the basis of limited information.

Stereotyping in the process of people learning each other can lead to 2 different consequences. On the one hand, to a certain simplification of the process of cognition of another h-ka; in this case, the stereotype does not necessarily carry an evaluative load: there is no “shift” in the perception of a h-ka towards its emotional acceptance or non-acceptance. In the second case, stereotyping leads to prejudice. If the judgment is built on the basis of past limited experience, and the experience was negative, any new perception of the representative of the same group is stained with hostility.

The idea of another person is closely related to the level of one's own self-consciousness. Analysis of self-awareness through another person is carried out using two concepts: identification and reflection.

Identification is one of the mechanisms of cognition and understanding of a person, which consists in the unconscious assimilation of oneself to a significant other.

Here, a significant other is a person who is an authority for a given subject of communication and activity. This usually happens when, in real situations of interaction, an individual makes attempts to put himself in the place of a communication partner. When identifying, a certain emotional connection with the object is established.

It is necessary to distinguish between the concepts of "identification" and "reference". If for the first concept the basis is the process of assimilation of the subject to a communication partner, i.e., assimilation to a significant other, then for the second concept ("reference") the main thing is the dependence of the subject on other people, acting as a selective attitude towards them. The object of referential relations can be either a group of which the subject is a member, or another group with which he relates himself, without being a real participant in it. The function of a referential object can also be performed by an individual, including a person who does not really exist (a literary hero, a fictional ideal to follow, etc.). In both cases, the subject borrows for himself the goals, values, ideas, norms and rules of behavior of the object of reference (a group, an individual.

The concept of "identification" in its content is close to the concept of "empathy".

Empathy is the comprehension of a person's emotional states in the form of empathy. The mechanism of empathy is similar to the mechanism of identification.

This similarity lies in the ability to put oneself in the place of another, to look at things from his point of view. However, this does not necessarily mean identification with this other person (as occurs in identification). It's just that with empathy, the partner's line of behavior is taken into account, the subject treats him with sympathy, but interpersonal relationships with him are built based on the strategy of his line of behavior.

Reflection - an individual's awareness of how he is perceived by a communication partner, that is, how a communication partner will understand me.

When interacting, certain characteristics of each other are mutually evaluated and changed.

Effects of interpersonal perception

Causal attribution

Thus, causal attribution is the interpretation by the subject of interpersonal perception of the causes and motives of the behavior of other people. The word "causal" means "causal". Attribution is the attribution to social objects of characteristics that are not represented in the field of perception.

halo effect (halo effect)

Formation of an evaluative impression of a person in conditions of lack of time for the perception of his actions and personal qualities. The halo effect appears either in the form of positive evaluative bias (positive halo) or negative evaluative bias (negative halo).

So, if the first impression of a person as a whole is favorable, then in the future all his behavior, traits and actions begin to be reassessed in a positive direction. In them, only positive aspects are highlighted and exaggerated, while negative ones are underestimated or not noticed. If, however, the general first impression of a person, due to the circumstances, turned out to be negative, then even his positive qualities and actions in the future are either not noticed at all, or are underestimated against the background of hypertrophied attention to shortcomings.

Effects of novelty and primacy

The effects of novelty and primacy are closely related to the halo effect. These effects (novelty and primacy) are manifested through the significance of a certain order of presenting information about a person to form an idea about him.

The effect of novelty occurs when, in relation to a familiar person, the most significant is the latest, i.e. newer information about him.

Stereotyping

Perception and evaluation of social objects based on certain ideas (stereotypes). Stereotyping is manifested in the attribution of similar characteristics to all members of a social group without sufficient awareness of the possible differences between them.

A stereotype is a simplified, often distorted, idea of a social group or an individual belonging to a particular social community, characteristic of the sphere of everyday consciousness.

The stereotype arises on the basis of limited past experience as a result of the desire to draw conclusions on the basis of insufficient information. Most often, stereotypes arise regarding a person's group affiliation.

Stereotyping is one of the most important characteristics of intergroup and interpersonal perception and is accompanied by manifestations of social attitudes, halo effects, primacy and novelty. In interpersonal perception, stereotyping performs two main functions:

1) maintaining identification;

2) justification of possible negative attitudes towards other groups.

The so-called ethnic stereotypes, when based on limited information about individual representatives of certain ethnic groups, are based on biased conclusions about the entire group, have become especially widespread. Stereotyping in the process of people knowing each other can lead to two different consequences. On the one hand, to a certain simplification of the process of knowing another person, and then this simplification leads to the replacement of the image of a person with a cliche, for example, “all accountants are pedants”, “all teachers are supervisors”. On the other hand, it leads to prejudice if the judgment about a social object is built on the basis of past limited experience, which most often can turn out to be negative.

attraction

When people perceive each other, certain relationships are formed with the inclusion of emotional regulators - from rejection of a particular person to sympathy, friendship, love.

Social attraction is a special kind of social attitude towards another person, in which positive emotional components predominate.

There are three main levels of attraction: sympathy, friendship, love. Attraction is manifested in emotional attractiveness, the attraction of one person to another.

Mutual understanding of partners in communication implies knowledge by each of them of the psychology of another person: his value orientations, motives and goals of activity, the level of claims and attitudes, character traits, etc. People have varying degrees of ability to communicate, to develop interpersonal sensitivity. These abilities can be developed and improved in the process of conducting socio-psychological trainings on interpersonal sensitivity. At present, in the practice of foreign psychology, the so-called T-groups (T is the initial letter of the word “training”) are organized, in which interpersonal sensitivity training is carried out. Socio-psychological trainings are organized using a sensitive technique. The sensitive method belongs to the category of interpersonal sensitivity methods. The main goal of sensitive training is to develop and improve the ability of individuals to understand each other.

Participants must not have previously known each other. No attempts are envisaged when forming a group to structure it on the basis of education, position held, qualifications or profession. During such training, participants are included in a completely new area of social experience for them, thanks to which they learn how they are perceived by other members of the group and get the opportunity to compare these perceptions with self-perception.

In the process of interaction, people's perception and mutual understanding of each other play a huge role. The results and content of joint activities depend on how effective they are.

The concept of interpersonal perception.

Interpersonal perception(synonymous with social perception) is a complex process:

a) perception of external signs of other people;

b) subsequent correlation of the obtained results with their actual personal characteristics;

c) interpretation and prediction on this basis of their possible actions and behavior.

In social perception as a whole, there is always an assessment of other people and the formation of attitudes towards them in an emotional and behavioral way, as a result of which their own strategy of activity is built.

There are usually four main functions interpersonal perception:

Self-knowledge, which is the initial basis for assessing other people;

Knowledge of partners in interaction, which makes it possible to orient in the social environment;

Establishment of emotional relationships, ensuring the choice of the most reliable or preferred partners;

Organization of joint activities on the basis of mutual understanding, allowing to achieve the greatest success.

In the course of social perception, images-ideas about oneself and partners are formed, which have their own characteristics. - Firstly, their content structure corresponds to the diversity of human properties. It necessarily contains components of the external appearance, which are firmly associated with the characteristic psychological features of his personality. For example: “smart eyes”, “strong-willed chin”, “kind smile”, etc. This is not accidental, since the way to the inner world of a partner is laid by a person who knows him through behavioral signals about the state and features of the perceived. The constitutional signs of the external appearance and the originality of its design with clothes and cosmetics play the role of standards and stereotypes of the socio-psychological interpretation of the personality.

Secondly, another feature of these images is that mutual knowledge is primarily aimed at understanding those qualities of a partner that are most significant at the moment for the participants in the interaction. Therefore, in the image-representation of a partner, the dominant qualities of his personality are necessarily distinguished.

Standards and stereotypes of mutual cognition are formed through communication with the immediate environment of a person in those communities with which he is connected by life. First of all, it is a family and an ethnic group that use the cultural and historical specifics of people's activities and behavior. Together with these patterns of behavior, a person learns political, economic, socio-age, emotional, aesthetic, professional and other standards and stereotypes of human cognition by a person.

The practical purpose of mutual representations of partners lies in the fact that understanding the psychological makeup of a person is the initial information for determining the tactics of one's behavior in relation to the participants in the interaction. This means that the standards and stereotypes of mutual knowledge perform the function of regulating people's communication. A positive and negative image of a partner reinforces the attitude of the same direction, removing or erecting psychological barriers between them. In discrepancies between mutual ideas and self-assessments of partners, the causes of psychological conflicts of a cognitive plan are hidden, which from time to time develop into conflict relations between interacting people.

From the direct image of a partner, a person in the process of social perception rises to knowledge about a person in general and returns to self-esteem. Making these circles of mutual knowledge, he clarifies information about himself and about the place that he can occupy in society.

With the features of interpersonal perception, a number of psychological effects. Among them are the effects of novelty, primacy, halo.

The effect of novelty when people perceive each other lies in the fact that in relation to a familiar person, the latter turns out to be the most significant, i.e. more new information about it. And in relation to a stranger, the first information is more significant.

The primacy effect consists in the fact that the probability of recalling the first few elements of a homogeneous material is higher than the average ones (moreover, the more voluminous the presented material and the higher the rate of its presentation, the fewer the first elements are recalled);

2) knowledge and understanding of each other by people (identification, empathy, attraction);

3) self-knowledge (reflection) in the process of communication;

4) predicting the behavior of an interaction partner (causal attribution).

The perception of other people is greatly influenced by the process of stereotyping. Under social stereotype is understood as a stable image or idea of any phenomena or people, characteristic of representatives of a particular social group.

A stereotype is a "reduced", simplified and value-colored representation of reality, functioning in the public consciousness. It arises in the mind of a member of a given social group as a result of the repeatedly repeated connection of certain symbols with a certain category of phenomena, as well as on the basis of perception that is not associated with direct experience: “We are told about the world around us before we see and appreciate it.”

Many stereotypes arise spontaneously and spontaneously due to the inevitable need to save attention in the process of assimilation of the experience of other people and previous generations, the experience fixed in the form of habitual ideas. The phenomenon of stereotyping is a characteristic feature of a person's processing of external influences. It is closely connected with the desire of a person to "sort" the information he has received, "sort it into pieces" in the mind.

Naturally, certain criteria are necessary for such sorting. At the level of everyday consciousness, the most characteristic, catchy, “lying” features of an object, phenomenon, etc. have become such criteria. Human consciousness invariably strives to simplify these criteria in order to expand the scope of categories into which as many phenomena as possible can be accommodated. In general, it is human nature to look for the common in different things, to “summarize” knowledge, to generalize.

One-sidedness in the selection of traits for a certain stereotype is determined by the interests of a particular social group. For each group, the socio-psychological stereotype represents a generalization of its experience in relation to socially significant objects, processes, phenomena, types of people, etc.

Stereotypes help reinforce traditions and habits. In this regard, they act as a means of protecting the mental world of the individual and as a means of its self-affirmation. In other words, stereotypes are a fortress guarding our own traditions, and under its cover we can feel safe in the position we occupy.

Stereotypes influence the formation of new experience: they fill a fresh vision with old images and are superimposed on the world that we resurrect in our memory.

Stereotypes are predominantly inaccurate images of reality: they may be based on "mistake", on the habit of mistaking bias for truth.

The stereotype is unambiguous: it divides the world only into two categories - “familiar” and “unfamiliar”. "Familiar" becomes synonymous with "good" and "unfamiliar" becomes synonymous with "bad". Stereotypes distinguish objects in such a way that the slightly familiar is seen as very familiar, and the little familiar is perceived as insular hostile. Therefore, the stereotype carries an evaluative element.

The evaluative element appears in the form of an attitude, in the form of an emotional relation to the phenomenon. Moreover, expressing the feelings of the individual, his system of values, the stereotype always correlates them with group feelings and values. And, finally, the stereotype is most common when characterizing representatives of various social groups, primarily national and ethnic.

The most famous ethnic stereotypes are images of typical representatives of certain nations, which are endowed with fixed features of appearance and character traits (for example, stereotypical ideas about the stiffness and thinness of the British, the frivolity of the French, the eccentricity of the Italians, the coldness of the Germans).

For a person who has mastered the stereotypes of his group, they perform the function of simplifying and reducing the process of perceiving another person. Stereotypes are a "rough adjustment" tool that allows a person to "save" psychological resources. They have their "allowed" scope of social application. For example, stereotypes are actively used in assessing a person's national or professional group affiliation.

Empathy it is emotional empathy for another person. It manifests itself in the form of a response of one person to the experience of another. Through emotional response, people know the inner state of others. Empathy is based on the ability to correctly imagine what is happening inside another person, what he experiences, how he evaluates the world around him. It is almost always interpreted not only as an active assessment by the subject of the experiences and feelings of the cognizing person, but also, of course, as a positive attitude towards the partner.

As a phenomenon of interpersonal perception, empathy directly regulates the relationship between people and determines the moral qualities of a person. In the process of empathic interaction, a system of values is formed, which further determines the behavior of the individual in relation to other people.

The severity of empathy and its form (sympathy, empathy) depend both on the natural characteristics of the individual, such as talent, and on the conditions of upbringing, human life, his emotional experience. Empathy arises and is formed in interaction, in communication. This process is based on the mechanism of conscious or unconscious identification. The latter, in turn, is the result of a more fundamental feature of a person - the ability to compare oneself, one's personality, behavior, state with the personality, behavior, state of other people.

When analyzing empathy, Western psychologists emphasize two points.

1. A positive attitude towards another means recognizing the personality of this person in its entirety. At the same time, such an attitude does not exclude the negative reaction of the subject to what his communication partner is experiencing and feeling at the moment.

2. Feeling empathy for another, the subject can remain emotionally neutral: live for some time, as it were, in the world of experiences and feelings of another, without formulating either positive or negative judgments about him.

However, experiments conducted by Russian scientists on understanding a person by a person proved that the subjects always, to one degree or another, show an emotional attitude towards the person being evaluated. And this is not surprising. The results of research in our country confirm the proposition about the unity of consciousness and experience inherent in the human psyche: the reflection of reality is always refracted through an affective attitude towards it.

The emotional form of empathy, as a rule, arises from the direct perception of the experiences of another person and in a situation of his trouble is experienced as pity, sadness, compassion.

Empathic experience can be with any sign of the emotional state of the subject (positive - joy, satisfaction; negative - sadness, dissatisfaction). It is quite logical that when experiencing satisfaction, joy, a person does not so urgently need an emotional or effective response, as in the case when he experiences trouble. Cognitive empathy of other people, especially emotional and behavioral empathy, allows him to cope with difficult experiences.

The closer the bonds between people (for example, friends, spouses), the more empathy is possible between them. Moreover, the form also depends on the type of interpersonal relationship. If cognitive and emotional empathy is possible in any type of relationship, even between strangers, then behavioral, effective empathy is typical for close people. Naturally, effective empathy is characteristic of a humane person in general, but in close relationships it is most obvious.

Empathy is a socially positive quality of a person, it is supported by social norms of life, but it can have an individual, selective character, when they respond to the experience of not any other person, but only a significant one. In this regard, it becomes quite natural that in the presence of interpersonal attractiveness, a greater amount of empathy in all three of its forms can be expected.

attraction as a mechanism of interpersonal perception is the knowledge of another person, based on the formation of a stable positive feeling for him. In this case, the understanding of the interaction partner arises due to the appearance of attachment to him, a friendly or deeper intimate-personal relationship.

Other things being equal, people more easily accept the position of the person to whom they experience an emotionally positive attitude. It happens in the following way. Any signal that comes to a person through his senses may disappear without a trace, or may remain, depending on its significance and emotional charge. An emotionally significant signal, "bypassing" consciousness, remains in the sphere of the unconscious. In this case, a person, assessing his attitude towards other people, says that he does not know why he treats this way and not otherwise.

Therefore, if in the process of communication you send signals to your partner in such a way that: firstly, the signal is emotionally significant; secondly, its value was positive; thirdly, so that this signal is not realized, the partner will claim that the communication was pleasant, and the interlocutor will be a person who is conducive to himself.

In practice, this is how attraction is formed. But it must be borne in mind that the methods of attraction formation are not intended to convince or prove something, but only to win over a partner.

Reflection is a mechanism of self-knowledge in the process of interpersonal perception, which is based on the ability of a person to imagine how he is perceived by his partner. This is not just knowing or understanding a partner, but knowing how a partner understands me, a kind of doubled process of mirror relationships with each other.

Reflection is a rather complex phenomenon, which involves complex interrelations of phenomena, which is reflected in their classification (Table 2).

Causal attribution(the desire to clarify the causes of the behavior of the subject) is a mechanism for interpreting the actions and feelings of another person.

Research shows that each person has their own "favorite" schemes of causation, i.e. habitual explanations for other people's behavior:

1) people with personal attribution in any situation tend to find the culprit of what happened, to attribute the cause of what happened to a specific person;

2) in the case of addiction to circumstantial attribution, people tend to blame the circumstances first of all, without bothering to search for a specific culprit;

3) with stimulus attribution, a person sees the cause of what happened in the object to which the action was directed (the vase fell because it did not stand well), or in the victim himself (it is his own fault that he was hit by a car) (Bityanova M.R., 2001 ).

table 2

When studying the process of causal attribution, various patterns were revealed. For example, people most often attribute the cause of success to themselves, and failure to circumstances. The nature of attribution also depends on the degree of participation of a person in the event under discussion. The assessment will be different in cases where he was a participant (accomplice) or an observer. The general pattern is that as the significance of what happened increases, the subjects tend to move from circumstantial and stimulus attribution to personal attribution (i.e., look for the cause of what happened in the conscious actions of the individual).

What do you understand by the term interpersonal perception?

Interpersonal perception is an area of research in social psychology which examines the beliefs that interacting people have about each other. This area differs from social cognition and person perception by being interpersonal rather than intrapersonal, and thus requiring the interaction of at least two actual people.

Which psychologist is primarily associated with research on obedience?

The Milgram experiment was a famous and controversial study that explored the effects of authority on obedience. During the 1960s, Yale University psychologist Stanley Milgram conducted a series of obedience experiments that led to some surprising results.

Which of the following best describes group polarization?

Group polarization is the tendency of making more intense decisions by a group of people. It is observed that such decisions are more extreme than the individual opinions of all the group members.

Which of the following is the best example of scapegoating?

Which of the following is the best example of scapegoating? Ryan, who is a member of one racial group, does not get into the college he wants to attend. Even though his application was weak, he blames members of another racial group for his rejection.